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Buddhism, Definition, Beliefs, Origin, Systems & Practice

Buddhism, an ancient philosophy and religion aiming to beat suffering and reach enlightenment. Check its origins, beliefs, meditation practices, and historical development in this article.

Abhishek Kumar9 Jul, 2024

Buddhism: Buddhism is a religion and philosophy that originated from the teachings of a wise teacher named Buddha. He lived in northern India around 2,500 years ago. His teachings have spread widely, reaching places like Central and Southeast Asia, China, Korea, Japan, and even the West since the 20th century.

Early Buddhist teachings were written down in ancient languages like Pali and Sanskrit. Some of these words have become common in English. For example, you might recognize "dharma." However, the meanings of these words can sometimes be different from how we use them in English. In Buddhism, there are different traditions, and the language of the sacred texts varies. Pali is important for some Buddhist traditions, while others use Sanskrit. In some cases, texts were translated into languages like Tibetan or Chinese. Buddhism has had a significant impact on spiritual, cultural, and social life across Asia. Its teachings focus on understanding suffering and finding a path to overcome it, leading to enlightenment or awakening.

Definition of Buddhism

Buddhism is a philosophy and religion that started with the teachings of a wise teacher named Buddha in ancient India about 2,500 years ago. It's all about understanding suffering and finding ways to overcome it, leading to enlightenment or awakening. These teachings have spread to many places around the world, including Central and Southeast Asia, China, Korea, Japan, and even the West in more recent times.

Historical Development of Buddhism in India

The historical development of Buddhism in India traces back to the teachings of the Buddha around 2,500 years ago. Initially, it spread across northeastern India during a time of social and religious change. Over the centuries, Buddhism flourished, with royal patronage and the establishment of monastic communities, influencing Indian society and culture significantly.

The Beginnings of Buddhism

Buddhism was founded by the Buddha, a charismatic leader who created a unique religious community based on his teachings. This community included wandering ascetics like the Buddha and laypeople who supported them with food and other necessities. Over time, the Buddha's life story was remembered and embellished, his teachings were preserved and developed, and the community grew into a significant religious force. Many ascetics settled in permanent monasteries, developing rules for monastic life, while the lay community grew to include influential members of society.

Expansion Under Ashoka

During its first century, Buddhism spread throughout northern India from its origins in Magadha and Kosala. Invitations to the Council of Vesali (Vaishali), held just over a century after the Buddha's death, were sent to monks across northern and central India. By the mid-3rd century BCE, Buddhism had gained the favor of Ashoka, a Mauryan king whose empire stretched from the Himalayas to nearly Sri Lanka. Ashoka, ruling from about 268 to 232 BCE, supported Buddhism and is often depicted as a model Buddhist king. However, it's challenging to separate the historical Ashoka from the legendary one. Ashoka's inscriptions, including famous pillars, reveal his efforts to establish a "true dhamma" based on virtues like self-control, impartiality, cheerfulness, truthfulness, and goodness. Although he promoted Buddhism, he respected other religions and did not create a state church. He worked to maintain unity in the Buddhist monastic community and promoted an ethic focused on layperson's duties in this world. Ashoka established medical services, maintained reservoirs and canals, and promoted trade. He also sent diplomatic emissaries to areas beyond his political control.

Buddhism After Ashoka

After Ashoka's death, his empire began to decline, and the Mauryan dynasty fell in the early 2nd century BCE. Buddhism faced some persecution during the Shunga-Kanva period (185–28 BCE) but continued to persevere. By the time of the Gupta dynasty in the 4th century CE, Buddhism had become a leading religious tradition in India. During the centuries between the fall of the Mauryas and the rise of the Guptas, Buddhism saw significant developments. Stories about the Buddha's previous lives, key events in his life, and his relics were elaborated and compiled. Magnificent Buddhist monuments, like the great stupas at Bharhut and Sanchi, were built, and numerous monasteries emerged. These developments were supported by local rulers and royal courts.

Development of Buddhist Schools and Expansion

During this period, various schools of interpretation concerning Buddhist doctrine and monastic discipline emerged. The Hinayana tradition saw the rise of many different schools, each with its own variant of the Tipitaka, distinctive doctrinal positions, and unique forms of monastic discipline. The traditional number of these schools is 18, but the situation was complex. Around the beginning of the Common Era, Mahayana Buddhism began to take shape. Despite differences, many Hinayana and Mahayana adherents lived together in the same monastic institutions. By the Gupta era, Mahayana Buddhism had become the most dynamic and creative Buddhist tradition in India. Buddhism also expanded beyond India. Ashoka likely sent a mission to Sri Lanka, establishing Buddhism there. By the start of the Common Era, Buddhism had spread to Central Asia and China, facilitated by trade routes and possibly supported by the Kushana king Kanishka.

Buddhism Under the Guptas and Palas

By the Gupta dynasty (c. 320–c. 600 CE), Buddhism in India was influenced by the revival of Brahmanic religion and the rising tide of bhakti, a devotional movement emphasizing intense love for a personal god. Some Hindus worshiped the Buddha as an incarnation of the deity Vishnu, while some Buddhists venerated Hindu deities. Throughout the Gupta and Pala periods, Hinayana Buddhism remained a significant part of the Indian Buddhist community. The Yogacara school, another major Mahayana philosophical tradition, emerged, followed by the Vajrayana or Tantric tradition, which became powerful during the Pala period (8th–12th centuries). Tantric texts and rituals began appearing during the Gupta period, and the Vajrayana tradition became the most dynamic component of Indian Buddhist life during the Pala period.

Early Buddhism and Its Expansion

Buddhism began with the teachings of the Buddha, who attracted followers that formed a unique religious community. This community included wandering ascetics and laypeople who supported them with food and essentials. Over time, the Buddha's life story was remembered and embellished, his teachings were preserved and expanded, and the community grew significantly. Many ascetics settled in permanent monasteries, creating monastic rules, while the lay community included influential members of society.

Buddhism During the Tang Dynasty (618–907)

The Tang dynasty in China marked a golden age for Buddhism. Even though the Tang rulers were Daoists, they greatly favored Buddhism, which had become immensely popular at the time. Under Tang rule, the government took more control over Buddhist monasteries and the status of monks. This period saw the rise of various Chinese Buddhist schools, each with its own unique teachings and interpretations of Buddhist texts. Moreover, many scholars embarked on pilgrimages to India during this time, bringing back texts and spiritual insights that enriched Buddhism in China. However, in 845, Emperor Wuzong initiated a severe persecution of Buddhism, resulting in the destruction of thousands of temples and the forced return of many monks to lay life.

Buddhism After the Tang Dynasty

Although Buddhism in China never fully recovered from the persecution of 845, it continued to thrive and adapt. Buddhism maintained its identity while also blending with Confucianism and Daoism, creating a diverse religious landscape. Two prominent Buddhist schools that emerged during this period were Chan (known as Zen in Japan) and Pure Land. Chan emphasized meditation, particularly popular among the elite, while Pure Land focused on devotion and gained popularity among the general population. Despite facing challenges, Buddhism persisted in China, even undergoing a reform movement in the early 20th century. However, events like the Sino-Japanese War and the rise of communism posed further challenges, leading to widespread destruction of temples during the Cultural Revolution. Yet, with the end of the Cultural Revolution, Buddhism in China experienced a revival.

Nara and Heian Periods

During the Nara period (710–784), Buddhism became the state religion, with Emperor Shōmu actively promoting it. Nara became the national center of Buddhist worship, marked by the iconic "Great Buddha" statue. After the capital shifted to Heian-kyō (modern Kyōto) in 794, Buddhism continued to flourish. Chinese influence remained strong, with new Chinese Buddhist schools dominating the royal court. Mount Hiei and Mount Kōya became centers for Tiantai (Tendai) and Vajrayana (Shingon) Buddhism, respectively.

New Schools of the Kamakura Period

The 12th and 13th centuries saw the emergence of new Buddhist schools in Japan, coinciding with a shift in Japanese history as the imperial regime in Heian collapsed, and a new military dictatorship, the shogunate, arose in Kamakura. Leaders like Eisai, Dōgen, Hōnen, Shinran, and Nichiren founded Zen, Pure Land, and other schools, shaping Japanese Buddhism for centuries.

Premodern Period to the Present

During the Tokugawa shogunate (1603–1867), Buddhism became closely tied to the government, but it faced a decline in popularity by the beginning of the Meiji period (1868–1912). The Meiji government separated Buddhism from Shintō, leading to the confiscation of temple lands and the defrocking of many Buddhist priests. In the early 20th century, some Buddhist thinkers called for Asian unity under Japanese leadership. However, after World War II, Buddhist groups emphasized peace and brotherhood. New religions like Sōka-gakkai and Risshō-Kōsei-kai gained prominence in the postwar period, with Sōka-gakkai entering politics.

Tibet, Mongolia, and the Himalayan Kingdoms

Buddhism entered Tibet in the 7th century, gaining royal support and spreading rapidly. Despite periods of suppression, Buddhism experienced a revival in the 11th and 12th centuries, with the translation of Buddhist texts and the establishment of the Dge-lugs-pa school by Tsong-kha-pa. The fifth Dalai Lama became the theocratic ruler of Tibet in the 17th century, with subsequent Dalai Lamas holding significant power. Tibetan Buddhism faced challenges from outside forces, including attempts to exploit divisions between the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama. In 1959, after the Dalai Lama fled to India, Chinese communists took control of Tibet. Tibetan refugees established centers in India and other countries, preserving their Buddhist tradition despite persecution and repression. Today, Tibetan Buddhists continue to face challenges but remain dedicated to their faith and cultural heritage.

Buddhism's Influence on Mongolia

Buddhism's influence on Mongolia dates back to the 4th century, although solid historical evidence from this time is scarce. However, by the 13th century, Mongol leaders like Kublai Khan were supporting Tibetan Buddhism, leading to translations of Buddhist texts into Mongolian.

Altan Khan and the Spread of Buddhism

In 1578, Altan Khan embraced the Dge-lugs-pa version of Tibetan Buddhism and promoted it widely among his followers. Over time, Mongolian scholars translated numerous texts from Tibetan and developed their own unique Buddhist traditions.

Mongolian Buddhism in China

During the Mongol empire's rule over China from 1280 to 1368, Mongols introduced their variant of Tibetan Buddhism into China. Even after losing power in China, Mongols preserved their Buddhist traditions in their homeland.

Challenges and Revival

In the 20th century, communist regimes in Mongolia, the Soviet Union, and China severely undermined Mongolian Buddhism. However, by the late 20th century, pressures eased, and a revival of Buddhist institutions and practices began in Mongolia.

Beliefs and Doctrines

Cosmology: Theravadins believe in an infinite number of cosmos, each with three planes of existence:

Realm of Desire (Kama-loka): Includes heavens, hells, and the earth.
Realm of Material Form (Rupa-loka): Associated with meditational states.
Realm of Immateriality (Arupa-loka): Linked to higher meditational states.

Each plane has various levels, including heavens, hells, and the earth, inhabited by different beings like gods, humans, animals, and spirits. The cosmos cycles through periods of destruction and reformation. Human Existence: Seen as privileged because only humans can become Buddhas or perfected saints. Human beings can choose good or bad actions, affecting their rebirths. The concept of dhammas (elements of existence) is central, indicating there is no permanent self but a constantly changing aggregate governed by karma. Dhammas Classification: Essential to understanding human personality and reality. They are divided into groups like the five skandhas (components), twelve bases, and eighteen sensory elements.

Meditation Practices

Two main forms of meditation in Theravada Buddhism are:

Jhana (Dhyana): Aims at moral and intellectual purification through stages of detachment from desires and achieving inner serenity.
Vipassana: Insight meditation that focuses on understanding the impermanent and suffering nature of reality, leading to nirvana.

In the 20th century, vipassana meditation gained popularity and became central in many Theravada practices.

The Path to Enlightenment

Theravada Buddhists strive to become arhats, or "worthy ones," who attain nirvana through their efforts. The path involves passing through four stages:

Stream-winner: Initial insight into nirvana.
Once-returner: Only one more rebirth before attaining nirvana.
Non-returner: Achieves release in the present life or before another rebirth.
Arhat: Complete freedom from ignorance and desires.

The Buddha and Nirvana

The Buddha, known as the perfectly Enlightened One, reaches nirvana, a state beyond death and becoming. Three kinds of nirvana are associated with the Buddha:

Nibbana of defilements: Achieved at enlightenment.
Nibbana of the aggregates: Achieved at death.
Final nibbana: When the Buddha's relics reunite and he gives a last sermon.

The Buddha is often referred to as Arahant or Tathagata, and future Buddhas like Metteyya are expected to reestablish the religion.

The Pali Canon (Tipitaka)

The Pali Canon, or Tipitaka, is the most complete collection of early Buddhist literature, comprising three sections:

Vinaya Pitaka: Rules for monastic life.
Sutta Pitaka: Collection of the Buddha's discourses.
Abhidhamma Pitaka: Scholastic and philosophical texts.

Noncanonical Texts

Noncanonical texts, like commentaries and other works, also hold significant value. Notable authors include:

Nagasena: Known for the Milinda-panha, a profound dialogue on Buddhist doctrine.
Buddhaghosha: A prolific writer who authored the Visuddhimagga and other key commentaries.
Buddhadatta: Wrote important works like the Abhidhammavatara.
Dhammapala: Known for his commentaries on various texts.

Chronicles and Historical Texts

Historical texts like the Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa chronicle the history of Buddhism in Sri Lanka and provide rich mythic and legendary material. These works continue to influence Theravada Buddhism in Sri Lanka and other regions.

Buddhism FAQs

What is Buddhism?

Buddhism is a philosophy and religion that started with the teachings of a wise teacher named Buddha around 2,500 years ago. It's about understanding suffering and finding ways to overcome it, leading to enlightenment or awakening.

Where did Buddhism originate?

Buddhism originated in ancient India, where Buddha lived and taught over two millennia ago. From there, his teachings spread to many parts of Asia and eventually to the West.

What are the main beliefs of Buddhism?

Buddhists believe in understanding suffering and finding a path to overcome it. They also believe in concepts like karma, reincarnation, and enlightenment.

How does Buddhism view human existence?

Human existence is seen as privileged in Buddhism because only humans can become Buddhas or perfected saints. Humans have the ability to choose good or bad actions, which affects their rebirths.

What are the main meditation practices in Buddhism?

There are two main forms of meditation in Buddhism: Jhana (Dhyana), which aims at moral and intellectual purification, and Vipassana, which focuses on understanding the impermanent and suffering nature of reality.

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Definition of Buddhism

Historical Development of Buddhism in India

The Beginnings of Buddhism

Expansion Under Ashoka

Buddhism After Ashoka

Development of Buddhist Schools and Expansion

Buddhism Under the Guptas and Palas

Early Buddhism and Its Expansion

Buddhism During the Tang Dynasty (618–907)

Buddhism After the Tang Dynasty

Nara and Heian Periods

New Schools of the Kamakura Period

Premodern Period to the Present

Tibet, Mongolia, and the Himalayan Kingdoms

Buddhism's Influence on Mongolia

Altan Khan and the Spread of Buddhism

Mongolian Buddhism in China

Challenges and Revival

Beliefs and Doctrines

Cosmology: Theravadins believe in an infinite number of cosmos, each with three planes of existence:

Realm of Desire (Kama-loka): Includes heavens, hells, and the earth.
Realm of Material Form (Rupa-loka): Associated with meditational states.
Realm of Immateriality (Arupa-loka): Linked to higher meditational states.

Meditation Practices

Two main forms of meditation in Theravada Buddhism are:

Jhana (Dhyana): Aims at moral and intellectual purification through stages of detachment from desires and achieving inner serenity.
Vipassana: Insight meditation that focuses on understanding the impermanent and suffering nature of reality, leading to nirvana.

In the 20th century, vipassana meditation gained popularity and became central in many Theravada practices.

The Path to Enlightenment

Theravada Buddhists strive to become arhats, or "worthy ones," who attain nirvana through their efforts. The path involves passing through four stages:

Stream-winner: Initial insight into nirvana.
Once-returner: Only one more rebirth before attaining nirvana.
Non-returner: Achieves release in the present life or before another rebirth.
Arhat: Complete freedom from ignorance and desires.

The Buddha and Nirvana

The Buddha, known as the perfectly Enlightened One, reaches nirvana, a state beyond death and becoming. Three kinds of nirvana are associated with the Buddha:

Nibbana of defilements: Achieved at enlightenment.
Nibbana of the aggregates: Achieved at death.
Final nibbana: When the Buddha's relics reunite and he gives a last sermon.

The Buddha is often referred to as Arahant or Tathagata, and future Buddhas like Metteyya are expected to reestablish the religion.

The Pali Canon (Tipitaka)

The Pali Canon, or Tipitaka, is the most complete collection of early Buddhist literature, comprising three sections:

Vinaya Pitaka: Rules for monastic life.
Sutta Pitaka: Collection of the Buddha's discourses.
Abhidhamma Pitaka: Scholastic and philosophical texts.

Noncanonical Texts

Noncanonical texts, like commentaries and other works, also hold significant value. Notable authors include:

Nagasena: Known for the Milinda-panha, a profound dialogue on Buddhist doctrine.
Buddhaghosha: A prolific writer who authored the Visuddhimagga and other key commentaries.
Buddhadatta: Wrote important works like the Abhidhammavatara.
Dhammapala: Known for his commentaries on various texts.