Historians and Their Sources
Historians use various sources to gather information about the past, including coins, inscriptions, architecture, and textual records. These sources provide valuable insights into the lives, cultures, and events of bygone eras.
As time passed, people began writing more extensively. They recorded holy texts, chronicles of rulers, letters and teachings of saints, petitions and judicial records, and registers of accounts and taxes. These writings were often preserved as manuscripts, which were handwritten documents collected by wealthy individuals, rulers, monasteries, and temples. These manuscripts contained detailed information about various aspects of life and governance.
Since manuscripts were written by hand, they were prone to errors and changes over time. There were no printing presses, so texts had to be copied manually, which led to slight variations in each version. This process made it challenging to determine the original content, as the authentic writer could not be easily identified.
Historians must read different manuscript versions of the same text to reconstruct what the original author might have written.
An interesting example of this challenge is the work of the fourteenth-century chronicler, Ziauddin Barani. He wrote his chronicle in 1356 and then revised it two years later. The two versions differ from each other, but historians were unaware of the first version's existence until the 1960s when it was discovered in a large library collection. This discovery highlighted the complexities historians face when dealing with historical texts and the importance of cross-referencing multiple sources to uncover the most accurate historical narratives.
New Social and Political Groups
The period between 700 and 1750 was marked by significant changes and developments across the Indian subcontinent. This era saw the introduction of new technologies, foods, and beverages, which arrived along with people bringing new ideas. For instance, the Persian wheel improved irrigation, the spinning wheel enhanced weaving, and firearms revolutionized combat. Potatoes, corn, chilies, tea, and coffee also became part of the Indian diet during this time. These innovations contributed to vast economic, political, social, and cultural transformations.
This period was characterized by great mobility as people traveled long distances seeking new opportunities. The subcontinent's wealth attracted many, allowing them to seek fortunes and establish new communities.
The Rajputs, whose name means "sons of rulers," emerged as a prominent group during this era. From the 8th to the 14th centuries, the term "Rajput" referred to a group of warriors claiming Kshatriya status, encompassing rulers, chieftains, soldiers, and commanders who served in various armies.
Rajputs were celebrated for their extreme valor and loyalty, traits often praised by poets and bards. Other groups like the Marathas, Sikhs, Jats, Ahoms, and Kayasthas also gained political significance during this period.
The period also saw the migration of many forest-dwellers due to habitat changes. The clearing of forests for agriculture advanced more rapidly in some areas than in others. Those who remained in forested areas began to cultivate the land, becoming peasants. These peasants became part of larger, complex societies, influenced by regional markets, chieftains, priests, monasteries, and temples.
This integration led to economic and social disparities among peasants. Some possessed more productive land, others raised cattle, and some combined artisanal work with agriculture during off-seasons.
As society evolved, people grouped into jatis or sub-castes, ranked based on their backgrounds and occupations. These rankings were fluid, changing with the jati's power, influence, and resources.
The status of a jati varied by region, and each jati developed rules to govern the behavior of its members, enforced by an assembly of elders known as the jati panchayat in some areas. Despite these internal regulations, jatis also had to adhere to the rules of their villages, which were often governed by a chieftain.
Overall, this period was one of dynamic change, marked by the introduction of new technologies, increased mobility, and the formation of new social and political groups.
