Places in News UPSC Explained, Check Details

Places in News is an important topic for candidates preparing for the UPSC Civil Services Examination, as several questions in the Prelims often come directly from locations mentioned in current affairs. These questions test not only awareness of global and Indian events but also a candidate’s understanding of geography, geopolitics, and map-based locations.

Places in News for UPSC compiles significant countries, islands, seas, straits, and strategic regions that have recently appeared in the news. These locations are frequently asked in the exam due to their geopolitical, ecological, or economic significance.

Places in News UPSC

Places in News for UPSC is an important topic in current affairs that frequently appears in the UPSC Prelims exam. Below are the places in News UPSC:

Archipelago Cape Verde

Cape Verde is an Atlantic island nation located off the west coast of Africa, making it vulnerable to climate risks like sea level rise and water scarcity. It consists of approximately 10 volcanic islands, indicating a volcanic origin. 

The World Bank estimates it needs significant annual funding to address climate and developmental challenges.

Lesotho

Lesotho is a landlocked country in southern Africa, notable for being completely surrounded by South Africa. It is situated in the Maloti Mountains and contains Thabana Ntlenyana, the highest peak in southern Africa. 

Lesotho is the largest of the world's three independent states completely surrounded by another country. The other two are:

• Vatican City, surrounded by Italy.

• San Marino, surrounded by Italy.

Canary Islands

The Canary Islands are a Spanish archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean, off the northwest coast of Africa, near Morocco. Despite proximity to Africa, they are an autonomous community of Spain and serve as a key migrant entry route to Europe. The islands were formed by a hotspot beneath the African plate, indicating a volcanic origin.

Gulf of Mexico

The Gulf of Mexico is a large marginal sea of the Atlantic Ocean, bordered by the United States, Mexico, and Cuba. It is the world's largest gulf and plays an important role in the formation of the Gulf Stream. The Mississippi River drains into it. A gulf is a large, deep inlet of an ocean or sea that penetrates deeply into the land.

Syria

Syria is a country in Western Asia, bordered by Turkey, Iraq, Jordan, Israel, Lebanon, and the Mediterranean Sea. The Syrian crisis and its geopolitical implications are significant, with bordering countries frequently asked in examinations.

Trinidad and Tobago

Trinidad and Tobago is a twin island country in the Caribbean Sea, near Venezuela. It is the southernmost island country in the Caribbean. The capital is Port of Spain. The country has a significant Indian origin population and is known for natural gas and oil resources. (Memory Tip: Although called "Trinidad and Tobago," Tobago lies to the north and Trinidad to the south.)

West Indies

The West Indies refers to a group of islands in the Caribbean Sea, including various nations and territories. Trinidad and Tobago, for instance, is part of this group.

Mauritius

Mauritius is an island nation in the southwest Indian Ocean, east of Madagascar. It has a large Indian origin population and is strategically important for maritime and Indo-Pacific outreach.

Tanzania

Tanzania, an East African country, is important for the study of human evolution due to rich fossil records. The Marburg virus disease was recently reported here (Memory Tip: Link Marburg virus to Tanzania). 

It borders Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Malawi, Mozambique, and the Indian Ocean. It contains Mount Kilimanjaro, Africa's highest peak, and major ports like Dar es Salaam.

Major Lakes in Tanzania (South to North):

1. Lake Nyasa (or Lake Malawi)

2. Lake Tanganyika (Africa's deepest lake)

3. Lake Victoria (Africa's largest lake)

Gaza Strip

The Gaza Strip is a small, densely populated coastal territory along the eastern Mediterranean Sea. It is bordered by Israel and Egypt and is a major focal point for the Israel-Palestine conflict.

Sea of Galilee (Lake Kinneret)

The Sea of Galilee, also known as Lake Kinneret, is a freshwater lake in Israel. It is the lowest freshwater lake on Earth and the second lowest lake in the world (after the Dead Sea) with respect to sea level.

Questions related to Israel and its geography will be present in the prelims exam.

Black Sea

The Black Sea is a strategically important body of water, connected to the Mediterranean Sea via the Bosphorus Strait. 

It is bordered by Turkey, Georgia, Russia, Ukraine, Romania, and Bulgaria. Questions about countries bordering the Black Sea are common in the UPSC exam.

Republic of Estonia (Baltic States)

Estonia is one of the Baltic States (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania). It is bordered by the Gulf of Finland, the Baltic Sea, Latvia, and Russia. 

The term "Baltic States" is a geopolitical term for these three countries and is distinct from countries bordering the broader Baltic Sea.

Baltic Sea

The Baltic Sea is a semi-enclosed sea in northern Europe, bordered by nine countries: Denmark, Germany, Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Russia (Kaliningrad Oblast), Finland, and Sweden. It is important to distinguish between the Baltic States and countries bordering the Baltic Sea.

Honduras (Central America)

Honduras is a Central American country with coastlines on both the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean. It is bordered by Guatemala, El Salvador, and Nicaragua. India dispatched humanitarian assistance to Honduras following Tropical Cyclone Sara.

Tropical vs. Temperate Cyclones (Naming)

The term "temperate cyclone" used with a name like "Sara" would make the statement incorrect as only tropical cyclones are named.

Mozambique (Southeastern Africa)

Mozambique is a southeastern African country along the Indian Ocean, severely impacted by Cyclone Jude, a tropical cyclone. It is bordered by Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, South Africa, and Eswatini. 

The Zambezi River divides it into two geographical regions. (Memory Tip: Madagascar is described as a "sandwich region" between Mauritius (East) and Mozambique (West)).

Vanuatu & Tuvalu (Pacific Island Nations)

Vanuatu, a Pacific island nation east of Australia, is prone to cyclones and volcanic activity.

Tuvalu, a low-lying island nation in the Pacific, is preparing for the world's first planned migration of an entire country due to rising sea levels. Both are in the Southern Hemisphere and prone to cyclones.

Baluchistan

Baluchistan, the largest province by area in Pakistan, also extends into regions of Iran and Afghanistan, where the Baluch ethnic group resides. It is rich in minerals, a key factor in internal turmoil. The Durand Line separated many Baluch people, leading to identity issues.

Yemen (Middle East)

Yemen is at the southern tip of the Arabian Peninsula, bordering Saudi Arabia and Oman, and the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. The Bab-el-Mandeb Strait is a key maritime choke point between Djibouti and Yemen, connecting the Red Sea to the Gulf of Aden (and thus the Indian Ocean). 

The Suez Canal connects the Mediterranean Sea with the Red Sea, linking the Mediterranean to the Indian Ocean via the Bab-el-Mandeb Strait. Understanding these connections is critical for UPSC.

Hodida

The port of Hodida in Yemen, on the Red Sea, is a key entry point for humanitarian and commercial supplies to Yemen.

Cook Islands

The Cook Islands are a self-governing island country in the South Pacific Ocean. Its residents are New Zealand citizens, but it can form independent relationships with other countries.

Kurustan Region

The Kurustan region is a geocultural non-sovereign territory of Kurd ethnicity spanning Turkey, Iraq, Iran, and Syria. These people demand autonomy. The Kurdistan Region within Iraq is autonomous with Erbil as its capital. (Memory Tip: The situation of the Kurd ethnicity is analogous to the Balochi people).

Gulf of Tonkin

The Gulf of Tonkin is in the South China Sea, between northern Vietnam and southern China. Vietnam recently published a map defining its baseline claim, reflecting ongoing maritime disputes. Laos is landlocked and does not border the Gulf of Tonkin.

Argentina

Argentina is a South American country. Its capital is Buenos Aires. The Falkland Islands are an overseas territory of the United Kingdom, not Argentina.

Panama

Panama, an important country in the Central American region, serves as a linking country to South America. It borders Costa Rica and Colombia. Its capital is Panama City.

Democratic Republic of Congo

The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) is the second largest country by land area in Africa, with access to the South Atlantic Ocean. It is crucial to note that Democratic Republic of Congo is different from Republic of Congo. 

Its borders are shared with the Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, South Sudan, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania, Zambia, and Angola. The DRC is known for large mineral deposits. 

(Memory Tip: Historically, many African countries, especially in the northern region, have straight-line boundaries drawn by colonial powers, leading to conflicts).

North Sea

The North Sea is a vital European waterway. The seven countries bordering it are the United Kingdom, Norway, Denmark, Germany, Netherlands, Belgium, and France. Sweden and Finland do not border the North Sea.

Reunion Island

Reunion Island is a French overseas department in the Indian Ocean, east of Madagascar and southwest of Mauritius.

Arrangement of islands from west to east:

1. Mozambique

2. Reunion Island

3. Mauritius

White Island

White Island is an active volcanic island off the coast of New Zealand's North Island.

Turkey

Turkey is a transcontinental country at the crossroads of Europe and Asia. Its borders include the Black Sea (north), Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan (northeast), Iran (east), Iraq, Syria, Mediterranean Sea (south), Aegean Sea (west), Greece, and Bulgaria (northwest). The Black Sea forms Turkey's northern boundary, not southern.

Suriname

Suriname is a small South American country bordered by Guyana (west), French Guiana (east), Brazil (south), and the Atlantic Ocean (north).

South Sandwich Islands

The South Sandwich Islands are a remote British overseas territory in the South Atlantic Ocean, near Antarctica. South Georgia refers to a group of islands distinct from the country Georgia.

Sea of Marmara

The Sea of Marmara is an inland sea in Turkey linking the Black Sea and the Aegean Sea. The Bosphorus Strait connects the Black Sea to the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles Strait connects the Sea of Marmara to the Aegean Sea.

Botswana

Botswana is a landlocked country in Southern Africa, known for the Kalahari Desert and wildlife. India plans to import cheetahs from Botswana. It is bordered by South Africa, Namibia, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.

Taiwan Strait

The Taiwan Strait is a narrow body of water separating China from Taiwan, a strategically important area due to ongoing disputes.

Tutti Island

Tutti Island, located at the confluence of the Blue Nile and the White Nile, is in Sudan. It is formed by sedimentary deposition from the rivers, not volcanic activity. (Memory Tip: For islands associated with rivers, formation is almost always due to deposition).

Colombia

Colombia officially joined China's Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). Its capital is Bogota. It borders Venezuela, Brazil, Peru, Ecuador, Panama, the Caribbean Sea, and the Pacific Ocean.

Crimea

Crimea was seized by Russia in 2014, leading to an ongoing dispute with Ukraine.

Persian Gulf

The Persian Gulf is a strategically important water body between Iran and the Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by eight countries: Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar, UAE, and Oman (via Musandam enclave). It is linked to the Gulf of Oman by the Strait of Hormuz.

Chagos Islands (Diego Garcia)

The Chagos Islands are in the Indian Ocean. Diego Garcia, a key island, hosts a major US-UK military base and is strategically important. The UK transferred sovereignty of the Chagos Islands to Mauritius, including the military base.

Zangizour Corridor

The Zangizour Corridor is a proposed transport route to connect Azerbaijan to Nakhchivan through southern Armenia, significant for the South Caucasus region.

Strait of Hormuz

The Strait of Hormuz is a narrow waterway connecting the Persian Gulf with the Gulf of Oman and the Arabian Sea. It is a critical choke point for global oil trade. (Memory Tip: "Choke points" like the Strait of Hormuz are strategic narrow passages where trade or military movement can be controlled).

Mount Etna

Mount Etna is an active volcano on Sicily, Italy, at the boundary of the African and Eurasian tectonic plates.

Helgoland

Helgoland is a small German island in the North Sea.

Easter Islands

Easter Island (Rapa Nui), a territory of Chile in the southeastern Pacific Ocean, is famous for its Moai statues. Sea-level rise concerns exist for its future.

Drake Passage

The Drake Passage, a stormy strait between Cape Horn (South America) and Antarctica, links the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean.

Nauru

Nauru, a small Pacific microstate, is known for its climate resilience citizenship program. It is the third smallest country in the world by area.

Strait of Malacca

The Strait of Malacca is a crucial choke point that connects the Indian Ocean with the South China Sea, between Malaysia and Indonesia.

Durand Line

The Durand Line is the 2,640 km border separating Afghanistan from Pakistan, established in 1893. Afghanistan was historically a buffer state.

Pasni Port

Pasni Port in Balochistan, Pakistan, on the Arabian Sea, was reportedly offered to the USA for shipping critical minerals.

Port Arrangement (East to West):

• Pasni Port (Pakistan)

• Gwadar Port (Pakistan, China collaboration)

• Chabahar Port (Iran, India collaboration)

Venezuela

Venezuela, on the northern coast of South America, has one of the largest oil reserves globally. It borders Colombia, Brazil, Guyana, and the Caribbean Sea.

Ayni Air Base & Tajikistan

The Ayni Air Base is in Tajikistan. India recently withdrew its two-decade-long military presence from this air base. Tajikistan is a landlocked Central Asian country, bordering Afghanistan, China, Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan.

Lake Turkana

Lake Turkana is the world's largest desert lake and largest alkaline lake, primarily in Kenya, with its northern tip extending into Ethiopia.

Somaliland / Horn of Africa

The Horn of Africa comprises S**omalia, *E**ritrea, **E**thiopia, **D**jibouti (*Memory Tip: S.E.E.D.). **Somaliland, a self-declared state within Somalia, was recognized by Israel, though not by the UN or broader international community.

Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands

The Senkaku Islands (Japan) or Diaoyu Islands (China) are subject to an ongoing territorial dispute between Japan and China.

Pratas/Dongsha Island

Pratas Island (Dongsha Island), in the North and South China Sea, is administered by Taiwan.

Siliguri Corridor (Chicken's Neck)

The Siliguri Corridor, or "Chicken's Neck," is a narrow strip of land (20-22 km wide), critically important for India as it links the Indian mainland to the northeastern states.

Pangong Tso

Pangong Tso is a high-altitude lake in eastern Ladakh, with approximately two-thirds under Chinese control due to the Line of Actual Control.

Strategic Locations in Ladakh (North to South):

1. Daulat Beg Oldi

2. Depsang Plains

3. Galwan Valley

4. Pangong Tso

Kolleru Wetland / Lake

Kolleru Lake in Andhra Pradesh, between the Krishna and Godavari districts, is a Ramsar site and India's largest freshwater lake. The National Green Tribunal has restrained infrastructure projects here.

Gandhi Sagar Wildlife Sanctuary

Located in Madhya Pradesh, Gandhi Sagar Wildlife Sanctuary is set to become India's second Cheetah habitat under the Cheetah Reintroduction Project.

Rama Krishna Beach (RK Beach)

RK Beach in Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, along the Bay of Bengal, was in the news due to black sand caused by sewage and waste contamination.

Simlipal Tiger Reserve

Simlipal Tiger Reserve in Odisha is a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve and source of rivers like Budhabalanga. The Munda tribals have protested denial of access to sacred groves. (Memory Tip: Simlipal is NOT a wetland).

Bhadra Tiger Reserve

Bhadra Tiger Reserve in Karnataka, with the River Bhadra flowing through it, is important for biodiversity.

Rushikulya River

The Rushikulya River in Odisha is closely associated with Olive Ridley turtles, a significant nesting site.

Dholavira (Indus Valley Civilization Site)

Dholavira, an Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) site in the Rann of Kutch, is important for cultural and ancient India studies.

Indus Valley Civilization Sites (North to South approximate):

1. Rakhigarhi

2. Harappa

3. Mohenjo-daro

4. Kalibangan

5. Dholavira

6. Lothal

Phawngpui National Park (Blue Mountain National Park)

Phawngpui National Park, or Blue Mountain National Park, in Mizoram, recently faced a forest fire. The Blue Mountain is the state's highest peak.

Talle Wildlife Sanctuary

Talle Wildlife Sanctuary in Arunachal Pradesh recently saw the discovery of a new beetle species, Clinedium leth, by the Zoological Survey of India.

Thoothukudi (Tuticorin)

Thoothukudi, or Tuticorin, is a major port city in southern Tamil Nadu along the Gulf of Mannar, known for maritime trade and hosting India's first international furniture park.

Vizhinjam International Seaport

The Vizhinjam International Seaport in Kerala is India's first deep-water transshipment port with a natural draft advantage.

Deeg

Deeg in eastern Rajasthan had the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) discover a paleo channel buried 23 meters underground, indicating past river flow.

Bitra Island

Bitra Island, part of the Lakshadweep group, is the smallest inhabited island and is being developed for defense purposes.

Apatani Tribe

The Apatani tribal women of the Ziro Valley in Arunachal Pradesh are known for facial tattoos and wooden nose plugs, a historical practice to deter enemies. They also practice wet rice cultivation.

Loktak Lake

Loktak Lake in Manipur is a freshwater lake characterized by its distinctive floating vegetation known as 'Phumdis'.

Hope Island

Hope Island, a crescent-shaped sandbar island off the coast of Kakinada in Andhra Pradesh, is planned for a satellite launching center.

Geomorphology: Exogenetic Forces

Erosion

Erosion involves destruction plus transportation: the weathering away, detachment, and removal of soil, rock, and regolith from the Earth's surface by natural agents. (Memory Tip: Agents responsible for erosion are also capable of deposition).

Key Natural Agents: Running water, wind, glaciers, sea waves, groundwater.

Inter-Stages of Erosion: Detachment, Transport, Abrasion.

Deposition

Deposition involves construction and accumulation: the process by which transported materials are laid down when the carrying capacity of an agent decreases.

Landforms

Landforms are natural physical features on the Earth's surface, the outcome of both endogenic and exogenic forces.

Agents of Erosion, Deposition, and Associated Landforms: Wind

Wind is a dominant erosional and depositional agent in hot desert regions, primarily occurring above the ground. Its intensity depends on wind velocity.

Three Primary Ways of Wind Erosion:

1. Deflation: Removal of loose, fine-grained particles by wind.

2. Abrasion (Sandblasting): Erosive action of wind-borne particles impacting rock.

3. Attrition: Wearing down of rock particles as they collide during transport.

Erosional Landforms Formed by Wind

1. Deflation Hollows: Depressions formed by removal of sand and loose particles by deflation.

2. Mushroom Rocks: Rocks with a broad upper part and a narrow base due to differential erosion, as wind-borne sediments erode lower levels more.

3. Inselbergs: Residual hills of resistant hard rock in arid regions after softer rocks are eroded.

4. Demoiselles: Soft rock formations capped by hard rock, forming pillar-like structures.

5. Zugen: Ink-pot-like structures due to differential erosion of hard and soft rock layers.

6. Yardangs: Elongated, streamlined landforms sculpted by wind in alternating hard and soft rock layers.

7. Pediments and Playas: Pediments are erosional plains at mountain bases. Playas are flat-bottomed desert basins that temporarily hold water.

8. Bajadas: Transitional regions between a playa and a pediment, composed of coalesced alluvial fans.

Depositional Work of Wind and Landforms

Sand dunes are the most common depositional features.

Types of Sand Dunes:

• Barchans (or Barkans): Crescent-shaped dunes with horns pointing downwind.

• Parabolic Dunes: The exact reverse of a barchan in orientation; convex side points upwind.

• Seif (Linear Dunes): Elongated, linear ridges of sand, like a barchan with one arm.

• Longitudinal Dunes: Long ridges parallel to prevailing wind, formed with limited sand and constant wind.

• Transverse Dunes: Long ridges perpendicular to prevailing wind, formed with abundant sand.
  Loess: Thick deposits of unstratified, well-sorted, fine-grained sediments deposited by wind.

Glaciers: Processes and Landforms

Glaciers are moving masses of ice, significant agents of erosion and deposition.

Processes of Glacial Erosion:

1. Plucking: Glacier pulls away chunks of rock from underlying bedrock.

2. Abrasion: Rock fragments embedded in the glacier scrape and grind the bedrock.

Erosional Landforms Formed by Glaciers

1. U-shaped Valley: Valleys with a distinctive U-shaped cross-section formed by glacial erosion, with very steep slopes.

2. Hanging Valley: Valley of a tributary glacier joining the main valley at a much greater height.

3. Cirques (or Corries): Broad, armchair-shaped hollows at the head of a glacial valley.

4. Arêtes: Sharp, knife-edge ridges formed when two cirques cut back.

5. Horns (Pyramidal Peak): Pyramidal peak formed by the intersection of two or more cirques.

6. Crag and Tail: A steep, hard rock obstruction (crag) on the up-glacier side, followed by a gentle tail of deposited material on the down-glacier side.

7. Fjords (or Fjords): Glacial troughs (U-shaped valleys) occupied by the sea. Formed by deep glacial erosion and subsequent sea-level rise or land submergence. (Memory Tip: This was a 10-marker question in a recent examination).

Depositional Work of Glaciers: Landforms

1. Till: Unstratified, unsorted debris dropped by a glacier.

2. Moraines: Ridge-like depositional features of glacial till (Lateral, Terminal, Medial).

3. Drumlins: Swarms of oval, elongated, whale-back hillocks of boulder clay, steeper on one side. (Memory Tip: Sometimes referred to as "Basket of Eggs Topography").

4. Eskers: Long, narrow, sinuous ridges of sand and gravel deposited by meltwater rivers beneath a glacier.

Wave Currents and Coastal Landforms

Waves are oscillations of surface water, primarily transmitting energy. Currents involve the movement of water molecules.

Erosional Coastal Landforms

Continuous wave action creates distinct features:

1. Notch: Undercut at the base of a rock wall.

2. Cliff: Part of the landform above the notch.

3. Wave-Cut Platform: Flat, erosional surface left as a cliff retreats inland.

4. Sea Caves: Hollows created by wave erosion at the base of a cliff.

5. Arches: Formed when two sea caves unite or erode through a headland.

6. Stacks: Isolated pillars of rock remaining after an arch collapses.

Depositional Coastal Landforms

1. Beaches: Short-lived deposits of marine sediments (sand, shingle, cobbles).

2. Spits: Elongated landforms extending from the coast into water (hooked spit if hook-shaped).

3. Barrier Island: Depositional feature parallel to the coast.

4. Tombolo: Depositional feature connecting an island to the mainland.

Karst Topography

Karst topography is landform produced by chemical weathering of carbonate rocks (like limestone) by surface and subsurface water.

Essential Conditions: Massive, jointed limestone, above ground, widely distributed, close to surface, highly folded/fractured, enough rain.

Erosional Features:

• Lapiés: Corrugated, rough limestone surface.

• Solutional Depressions:

• Sinkhole (smallest) → Swallow Hole → Doline → Uvala → Polje (largest). (Memory Tip: Size increases sequentially from sinkhole to polje).

• Caves: Large voids below ground.

• Ponors: Vertical pipe passages connecting surface to a cave.
  Depositional Features (inside caves):

• Stalactites: Hang downwards from ceiling. (Memory Tip: 'T' for tight to the ceiling).

• Stalagmites: Grow upwards from ground. (Memory Tip: 'G' for ground).

• Pillars (Columns): Formed when stalactites and stalagmites join.

Running Water (Fluvial Geomorphology)

Running water refers to flowing water (rivers, streams).

River Action: Processes of Erosion:

1. Hydraulic Action: Force of water dislodging particles.

2. Abrasion: Sediments grinding against bed/banks.

3. Attrition: Particles colliding and breaking down.

4. Solution: Water dissolving soluble minerals.
   River Transport of Particles:

5. Traction: Heavy particles roll along bed.

6. Saltation: Lighter particles 'jump' along bed.

7. Suspension: Very fine particles carried within water.

8. Solution: Dissolved minerals transported within water.

River Erosional Landforms

Stages of a River: Youth (strong erosion), Mature (erosion & deposition), Old (minimal erosion, dominant deposition).

• River Valleys: V-shaped Valleys (youth stage, vertical erosion), U-shaped Valleys (mature stage, lateral erosion).

• Waterfall and Plunge Pool: Waterfall (steep fall due to differential erosion), Plunge Pool (depression at base of waterfall).

• River Terraces: Step-like, flat surfaces formed by repeated erosion and downcutting.

• Incised/Entrenched Meanders: Riverbed deeply cut into resistant bedrock, superimposing meanders.

River Depositional Landforms

• Natural Levees: Raised embankments of coarser sediments along river banks, formed by flooding.

• Delta: Depositional feature (often triangular) at river mouth, where velocity decreases.

• Alluvial Fans and Cones: Accumulations of material at foothill bases, formed when river gradient abruptly drops.

• Oxbow Lake: U-shaped lake formed when a river meander is cut off from the main channel.