Class 12 History Chapter 5 Notes: Through The Eyes Of Travellers

Through the Eyes of Travellers: Perceptions of Society explores medieval India through the accounts of foreign travellers who visited the country between the 11th and 17th centuries. Their writings provide details about the society, culture, religion, and political systems of that period.

The chapter focuses on Al-Biruni, Ibn Battuta, and François Bernier and their observations of Indian life. These accounts are important for Class 12 History preparation and help students understand topics such as social divisions, agriculture, trade, cities, communication systems, the position of women, and slavery. 

Medieval India: Periodisation And Political Context

The discussion of medieval India begins around the 10th century CE.

• Early medieval India: 7th to 12th century CE

• Late medieval India: 13th to 18th century CE

• The Delhi Sultanate ruled from the 13th century until 1526.

• The Mughal Empire ruled from 1526 to 1857, as stated in the lecture.

This period witnessed foreign invasions, including Islamic invasions. Travellers recorded India’s social, economic, political, religious, and cultural conditions, along with its trade routes and urban centres.

Major Travellers And Their Works

The three travellers visited India in different centuries and recorded their observations in written accounts. Their works provide information about Indian society, culture, trade, and political life during their respective periods.

 Their accounts differ because they visited India in different periods and came from different cultural backgrounds.

Also Check: Class 12 History Syllabus

Al-Biruni And Kitab-ul-Hind

Al-Biruni was born in Khwarizm, an important centre of learning. He knew Syriac, Arabic, Persian, Hebrew, and Sanskrit. He studied the works of Plato and Aristotle through Arabic translations.

After Mahmud of Ghazni attacked Khwarizm, Al-Biruni was taken to Ghazni. He later travelled to north-western India, especially Punjab, and studied Sanskrit with Brahmins. He read Indian works on astronomy, medicine, mathematics, philosophy, and religion.

Mahmud of Ghazni attacked India seventeen times between approximately 1001 and 1027. These attacks involved the plunder of wealth and the destruction of temples, including those at Somnath and Mathura.

Features Of Kitab-ul-Hind

Al-Biruni wrote Kitab-ul-Hind in simple Arabic. It contained approximately 80 chapters and discussed:

• Religion and philosophy

• Festivals and customs

• Astronomy and alchemy

• Rules, laws, and social life

• Weights and measures

• Sculpture and scientific principles

His method was systematic, comparative, and precise. He usually began with a question, explained the topic through Indian traditions, and compared it with practices in other societies.

Al-Biruni believed that existing Arabic translations of Indian texts were not always accurate. His work aimed to help people who wanted to learn about, travel to, or settle in India.

Al-Biruni’s Three Barriers To Understanding India

Al-Biruni identified three important obstacles:

1. Complexity of Sanskrit: Sanskrit was very different from Arabic and Persian. Many words could express one meaning, while one word could have different meanings depending on context.

2. Diversity of Religious Traditions: Different regions had different customs, religious practices, and identities.

3. Self-Absorption and Insularity: Al-Biruni believed that local people did not easily mix with foreigners, making information difficult to obtain.

Limitations Of Al-Biruni’s Account

Al-Biruni relied mainly on Sanskrit texts such as the Vedas, Puranas, Bhagavad Gita, Patanjali’s works, and Manusmriti. These texts largely represented the Brahmanical social and intellectual tradition. Therefore, his account did not fully represent every section of Indian society.

Al-Biruni’s Description Of The Caste System

Al-Biruni described four major social groups:

1. Brahmins

2. Kshatriyas

3. Vaishyas

4. Shudras

He explained these divisions through the religious idea that the groups emerged from different parts of Brahma’s body

Al-Biruni compared Indian social divisions with Persian divisions:

He accepted the existence of social divisions but rejected the idea of permanent pollution or untouchability. He argued that nature itself contains a process of purification, so no group could remain permanently polluted.

Ibn Battuta And Rihla

Ibn Battuta was born in Tangier, Morocco, and belonged to an ulama family. The ulama were educated people familiar with Islamic traditions and Sharia.

He believed travel was an important source of knowledge. Before reaching India, he visited Mecca, Persia, Iraq, Syria, Yemen, Oman, and East Africa.

Ibn Battuta left for India in 1332, reached Sind in 1333, and travelled to the court of Muhammad bin Tughluq in Delhi. He was appointed the Qazi of Delhi. In 1342, he was sent as a messenger to China. His route included the Malabar Coast, Maldives, Sri Lanka, Bengal, Assam, Sumatra, and China.

His experiences were recorded by Ibn Juzayy in Rihla. The account described people, cultures, values, ideas, and practices that appeared new or unusual to Ibn Battuta.

Travel Difficulties

Travel was difficult because of long distances, unsafe roads, bandits, loneliness, and attacks. The journey from Multan to Delhi took about 40 days, while Sind to Delhi took about 50 days. Ibn Battuta was injured when his caravan was attacked.

Cities, Agriculture, And Trade

Ibn Battuta described Delhi and Daulatabad as wealthy and crowded cities. Their markets contained many goods and also served as centres of socio-cultural activity, including music, dance, temples, mosques, and public performances.

India had fertile land and could produce two crops in a year. It exported cotton, muslin, silk, brocade, satin, and spices. Profitable trade brought gold and silver into India.

Communication And Postal Systems

Ibn Battuta considered India’s highways, trade routes, guest houses, sarais, and postal system advanced for their time. A journey from Delhi to Sind could take 50 days, but a message could reach Sind in about five days through a relay system

The two postal systems were:

François Bernier And Mughal India

François Bernier was a doctor, philosopher, and historian. He came to India in 1656 and stayed until 1668. He served Dara Shikoh and later became associated with Danishmand Khan. He also worked near the Mughal court under Aurangzeb.

In Travels In The Mughal Empire, Bernier compared India with France and Europe. He generally presented Europe as superior and India as inferior. His writings circulated widely in Europe and contributed to a negative image of India.

Crown Ownership Of Land

Bernier identified the absence of private property as the main cause of India’s economic problems. He argued that:

• All land belonged to the king.

• The king distributed land among nobles.

• There was no independent landowning class.

• Peasants could not inherit or transfer land.

• Lack of ownership reduced investment in agriculture.

He also claimed that Indian society had only two groups: a wealthy upper class and a poor lower class. He argued that there was no middle class.

Also Check: Class 12 History Mid Term Notes 

Abul Fazl’s Alternative Explanation

The lecture contrasts Bernier’s view with Abul Fazl’s account in the Ain-i-Akbari. Abul Fazl explained that the ruler collected tax on crops, not rent on land ownership. The tax represented remuneration for sovereignty and protection. More production resulted in more tax, while less production resulted in less tax.

Social Classes In Mughal India

The lecture challenges Bernier’s two-class model. Mughal society included:

1. Zamindars

2. Large farmers

3. Small farmers

4. Untouchable landless labourers

This structure shows the presence of several social and economic groups, including intermediate categories.

Contradictions In Bernier’s Account

Bernier described Indian agriculture as declining but also admitted that Indian land was highly fertile and more productive than Egyptian land. He criticised Indian manufacturing while accepting that India had profitable international trade and received large quantities of gold and silver.

During the 17th century, around 15% of India’s population lived in towns, compared with about 7–8% in Europe. This indicates significant urban development and challenges Bernier’s description of Indian towns as temporary “camp towns.”

Indian towns included imperial, religious, port, trading, manufacturing, and pilgrimage centres. Merchant groups, known as Mahajans or Nandesis, formed guilds. Their heads were called Seths, while the senior head of a city’s merchants was the Nagar Seth.

Women, Slavery, And Sati

Ibn Battuta reported that slavery was widespread. Female slaves were bought and sold, exchanged as gifts, and used for domestic work. Some were also employed as spies or entertainers in royal courts.

Bernier described the practice of sati, in which a widow was burned with her deceased husband. He reported witnessing the sati of a twelve-year-old girl in Lahore.

However, women also performed important economic roles. They worked in agriculture, construction, embroidery, and manufacturing. Women from wealthy families could control land, participate in trade, conduct land transactions, and approach courts to settle disputes. Their position was therefore marked by both oppression and social agency.

Also Check: Class 12 History Answer Writing for Board Exams 2027

Important Tips to Remember for Class 12 History Chapter 5

Remembering the main travellers, their books, and their observations can help students revise this chapter for exams. Focus on the following key points:

• Al-Biruni: Remember his book Kitab-ul-Hind and the three barriers he identified: language, religious diversity, and insularity.

• Ibn Battuta: Learn about his book Rihla, his visit to Muhammad bin Tughluq's court, and his observations of cities, trade, and the postal system.

• François Bernier: Focus on his views about crown ownership of land, social classes, and comparisons between India and Europe.

• Compare Different Accounts: Understand how the travellers' backgrounds and experiences influenced their descriptions of Indian society.

• Women and Slavery: Revise the accounts of women's social and economic roles, slavery, and the practice of sati.

• Historical Sources: Remember that travel accounts provide useful information, but they may contain personal opinions, limitations, and contradictions.

Through the Eyes of Travellers highlights medieval Indian society through the accounts of Al-Biruni, Ibn Battuta, and François Bernier. Understanding their observations, perspectives, and limitations helps students revise Class 12 History Chapter 5 and prepare effectively for board exams.

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