CUET PG History Unit 10 Notes: Development of British Administration in India

The British East India Company gradually transformed from a trading organisation into a political power in India. As its control expanded, it introduced administrative changes to manage territories, collect revenue and maintain authority. These changes shaped key institutions such as the Army, Police, Civil Services and Judiciary.

For CUET PG History aspirants, understanding these developments is an important part of Unit 10 preparation. PW’s CUET PG Online Batches support this preparation through live and recorded classes, practice questions, DPPs, PYQs and mock tests, helping you revise historical concepts and practise for the examination alongside your regular studies.

Evolution of British Administrative Control

Two important legislative developments shaped the early administration of the East India Company: the Regulating Act of 1773 and Pitt's India Act of 1784.

The Board of Control represented the British government in supervising Indian affairs. It exercised authority over the Company's administration and reduced the independence of the private Court of Directors. These developments marked the gradual strengthening of British government control over the Company's Indian territories.

Development of the British Indian Army

The army was an important instrument of British expansion and colonial control. It helped the British defeat Indian powers, expand their territories, defend the empire and suppress resistance.

Presidency Armies Before 1857

Before the Revolt of 1857, the British Indian Army consisted of three separate Presidency Armies.

Each army had a distinct internal structure and recruitment pattern. British forces also had comparatively developed military organisation, logistics and supply arrangements.

Army Reorganisation After the Revolt of 1857

The Revolt of 1857 exposed weaknesses in the composition and loyalty of the Company's army. The British subsequently reorganised military recruitment, command and deployment.

Royal Peel Commission (1859)

The Royal Peel Commission recommended changes in the proportion of British and Indian soldiers.

Other important changes included:

• European troops were stationed at strategically important military and geographical locations.

• Artillery was placed under exclusive British control.

• Indians were excluded from handling artillery.

• British control over military command and important resources increased.

Arms Act, 1878: Restricted Indians from possessing firearms without the required licence.

Officer ranks: Indians could not rise above the rank of Subedar before 1914, while higher officer positions became more accessible to Indians only after 1940.

Martial and Non-Martial Races Policy

After 1857, the British introduced a recruitment policy based on the classification of communities as so-called martial and non-martial races.

The British used this classification to restructure recruitment and encourage separate regional, caste, tribal and communal loyalties through different companies and regiments. This policy was connected with the broader colonial strategy of divide and rule.

Economic and Political Impact of the Army

The army also had significant economic and political implications for British India:

• Approximately 52% of Indian revenue was spent on the army around 1904.

• Military expenditure reportedly remained around 40–50% until 1947.

• The army was used to suppress nationalist movements and maintain colonial order.

• Nationalist literature and newspapers were restricted within the army to limit political influence.

Development of the Police System Under British Rule

The British transformed earlier policing arrangements into a more centralised and hierarchical police system. Its main objective was to maintain colonial order and protect British authority.

Police Administration and Major Reforms

Under the Mughal system, different officials were responsible for maintaining law and order. The Faujdar was responsible for policing and maintaining order at the district level, while the Kotwal handled policing in towns and cities. During the Dual System in Bengal (1765–1772), zamindars were responsible for policing functions.

The major changes introduced under British rule are summarised below.

Police Act of 1861 and Fraser Police Commission

The Police Act of 1861 was based on the recommendations of the Police Commission of 1860. Its important features included:

• Introduction of a more centralised police structure.

• Adoption of the Irish police model across most provinces.

• Continuation of separate police legislation in Bombay and Madras.

• Strengthening of the police as an instrument of colonial administration.

Fraser Police Commission, 1902

The Fraser Police Commission recommended two broad branches of police service.

Features and Limitations of Colonial Police

The colonial police system had a centralised and quasi-military character. Its major features included strict hierarchy and discipline, high mobility, military-style organisation, strong government supervision and close association with district administration.

Armed Police (1920): Armed Police was introduced to reduce dependence on the army for suppressing disturbances.

The system also had several limitations:

• Corruption and inefficiency were widely acknowledged.

• Police personnel were often poorly trained.

• The system was frequently distrusted by ordinary people.

• British policymakers feared the possibility of rebellion within the police.

• Darogas and local landed elites played important roles in exercising government authority.

Development of the Indian Civil Services (ICS)

The Indian Civil Services formed the central administrative machinery of British India. The ICS was popularly known as the steel frame of India because of its central role in maintaining colonial administration.

Origin and Cornwallis' Civil Service Reforms

The development of the ICS is associated with Lord Cornwallis, whose tenure as Governor-General was from 1786 to 1793. The main objectives of establishing an organised civil administration were to improve revenue collection, reduce corruption, establish an organised administrative system and strengthen British control.

Cornwallis introduced the following changes:

• Prohibited the acceptance of gifts and bribes by Company officials.

• Restricted private trade by civil servants.

• Increased salaries and linked them to official responsibilities.

• Reserved higher administrative posts for British officials.

• Introduced the policy of complete Europeanisation.

• Followed seniority and departmental responsibilities in promotions.

Patronage system: Early civil service recruitment was based on nominations made by the Court of Directors in London. Influential British families benefited from this arrangement.

Charter Acts and Civil Service Recruitment Reforms

Different Charter Acts gradually changed the recruitment system of the civil services.

The Charter Act of 1853 marked the transition from nomination-based recruitment towards merit-based competitive selection. The minimum recruitment age was set at 22 years during the early period.

Training Institutions for Civil Servants

Two important institutions were established to train civil service recruits.

Fort William College was closed in 1806 following opposition from the Court of Directors. The East India College at Haileybury subsequently trained civil service recruits in England.

Indianisation of the Civil Services and Important Commissions

The inclusion of Indians in the higher civil services was gradual and faced considerable resistance.

Several commissions examined civil service organisation and the gradual Indianisation of higher administrative positions.

Atkinson Commission (1886)

• Proposed admitting Indians to all branches of public service.

• Recommended abolishing the Statutory Civil Service.

• Suggested dividing services into Imperial, Provincial and Subordinate categories.

• Recommended placing recruitment to higher Imperial Service posts under the Secretary of State in Council.

Islington Commission (1912)

• Focused on the Indianisation of civil services.

• Suggested recruitment through two channels: England and India.

• Proposed reserving 25% of posts for Indians.

• It states that Indians occupied only around 5% of posts at that time.

• Suggested classification of posts into Class I and Class II.

Lee Commission (1923)

• Also known as the Royal Commission on the Superior Civil Services in India.

• Recommended classifying the main services into All India, Central and Provincial categories.

• Treated Indianisation as an important objective while retaining the authority of the Secretary of State over appointments.

Classification, Competitive Examinations and Service Protections

The civil services were organised into different categories according to their administrative responsibilities.

The Charter Act of 1853 introduced open competitive examinations for civil service recruitment.

Macauley Committee

• Established to implement the competitive recruitment system.

• Recommended an age limit of 18–25 years.

• Supported selection through competitive examinations.

Indian candidates faced difficulties because examinations were initially held only in England. They also faced challenges travelling to England and preparing for the examination. Successful candidates underwent a period of probation and training.

First Competitive Examination in India: The source identifies 1922 as the year when the examination was first held in India, at Allahabad.

The Government of India Act 1935 strengthened the formal protections associated with civil services. These included safeguards relating to dismissal, protection of pay and pension, formal recruitment arrangements and Public Service Commissions for recruitment and service-related matters.

After the Indian Independence Act of 1947, the Secretary of State for India lost authority over appointments of Indian civil servants.

Development of British Judicial Administration in India

British judicial administration developed through the gradual introduction of formal courts, legal procedures and codified laws. It transformed earlier judicial arrangements and laid the foundation for a centralised court structure.

Pre-British Judicial System and Beginning of British Courts

Under the Mughal system, the ruler was considered the fountainhead of justice. Judicial decisions could depend on the discretion of judges and rulers. Social status, religion and caste could also influence the administration of justice.

Two important Charter Acts contributed to the establishment of British judicial institutions in India.

The Mayor's Courts marked an important stage in the development of the British common law system in India. Their initial jurisdiction was limited, particularly in relation to the native population.

Warren Hastings' Judicial Reforms

Warren Hastings introduced civil and criminal courts in the districts, known as Mufassil Courts.

Regulating Act, 1773: Provided for the establishment of the Supreme Court at Calcutta. The court began functioning in 1774, and Elijah Impey became its first Chief Justice.

Conflicts emerged between the Supreme Court, the Governor-General and the Company's administration over jurisdiction. These problems led to further clarification and legislative changes.

Cornwallis and William Bentinck's Judicial Reforms

Lord Cornwallis reorganised the judicial system and introduced important structural changes:

• Abolished the District Faujdari Adalats.

• Established four Circuit Courts at Calcutta, Dacca, Murshidabad and Patna.

• Appointed European judges to these courts.

• Retained District Diwani Adalats for civil matters under District Judges.

• Reorganised the Sadar Nizamat Adalat.

• Separated revenue administration from judicial administration.

Cornwallis Code: Strengthened the formal judicial structure and introduced the principle that government officials could be held answerable before civil courts for actions performed in their official capacity.

Sovereignty of Law: The principle established that law was supreme over individuals and institutions. The source mentions that appeals in cases involving amounts above ₹5,000 could reach the King in Council in London.

William Bentinck introduced further changes:

• Abolished the Circuit Courts.

• Transferred their functions to District Collectors under Commissioners of Revenue and Circuit.

• Replaced Persian with English in Supreme Court proceedings.

• Established Sadar Diwani and Sadar Nizamat Adalats at Allahabad.

• Established the Law Commission in 1833 under T.B. Macaulay for the codification of Indian laws.

Codification of Indian Laws and Establishment of High Courts

The Law Commission played an important role in developing a uniform legal framework.

Codification promoted greater uniformity in legal procedures and the administration of justice.

The Indian High Courts Act of 1861 enabled the establishment of High Courts from 1862 onwards. Major developments included:

• High Courts replaced the Sadar Diwani and Sadar Nizamat Adalats in the relevant jurisdictions.

• High Courts became important appellate institutions.

• The new judicial structure strengthened the formal hierarchy of courts.

• Codified laws increasingly reduced the role of earlier personal and religious legal systems in criminal administration.

Federal Court of India

The Government of India Act 1935 provided for the establishment of the Federal Court.

Federal Court (1937)

• Established in 1937.

• Exercised appellate and advisory jurisdiction.

• Could advise the Governor-General.

• Became an important institution in the development of India's federal judicial structure.

• Served as a precursor to the Supreme Court of independent India.

Major Principles and Effects of British Judicial Reforms

British judicial reforms introduced or strengthened several institutional principles, including:

• Rule of Law: Supremacy of law over individuals and institutions.

• Independent Judiciary: Development of a separate judicial structure.

• Separation of Powers: Distinction between executive, legislative and judicial responsibilities.

• Federal Judicial Structure: Development of local, provincial and central judicial institutions.

• Codification: Creation of written laws and standardised procedures.

• Uniformity: Greater consistency in legal administration across different territories.

For CUET PG History Unit 10, focus on the sequence of administrative reforms and the contributions of key British officials, including Warren Hastings, Lord Cornwallis and William Bentinck. Pay particular attention to important Acts, commissions, civil service recruitment changes, police reforms and the development of judicial institutions.

To practise these topics alongside the wider History syllabus, explore PW's CUET PG Online Batches, which offer live and recorded classes, DPPs, PYQs, mock tests, revision sessions and doubt-solving support.