CUET PG History Notes Unit 5: Rashtrakutas: Polity and Administration

The Rashtrakutas were one of the major powers of early medieval India. They ruled large parts of the Deccan from about 755 to 975 CE, with Manyakheta as their capital. Their rule is important for understanding the polity, administration, economy, culture and architecture of the period.

CUET PG History Unit 5 covers Rashtrakuta polity and administration topics. It explains the role of the king and ministers, administrative units, vassals, revenue, trade, art, literature and the reasons behind the decline of the dynasty.

Rashtrakuta Dynasty at a Glance

The Rashtrakutas were an important early medieval dynasty that controlled much of the Deccan for about two centuries. Their location and military campaigns helped them play an important role in both northern and southern Indian politics.

Check the full CUET PG History syllabus to see where this topic fits in Unit 5. 

Origin and Sources of the Rashtrakutas

Historians give more than one theory about where the Rashtrakutas came from. In an exam answer, it is best to present all of them as competing views.

• Yadava descent: A 914 CE copper grant says Dantidurga was born in the line of Yadava Satyaki, and Halayudha's Kavirahasya agrees. But only 8 of the 75 known inscriptions and grants mention this link.

• A governor's title: "Rashtrakuta" first meant "head of the region", a title for provincial governors under the Chalukyas. The dynasty took its name from the governor who founded an independent kingdom.

• Ashokan link: Some historians connect the name to the Rashtrikas and Rathikas of Ashoka's edicts and to the Arattas of Punjab. C.V. Vaidya said they were Punjab settlers who moved south.

• Kanarese origin: A.S. Altekar said they belonged to the Karnataka country, with Kanarese as their mother tongue and script. Inscriptions call them "Lord of Lattura" (Latur).

The main sources are inscriptions in Sanskrit and Kannada. Kannada books like the Kavirajamarga (c. 850 CE) and Vikramarjuna Vijaya (941 CE) also help. So do Sanskrit writings by Somadeva, Rajashekara, Gunabhadra and Jinasena. Arab travellers such as Suleiman, Ibn Haukal, Al-Masudi and Al-Istakhri also wrote about the dynasty. The Rashtrakutas took the title Prithvi Vallabha, and Arab writers turned "Vallabha" into "Balhara".

Solve the CUET PG History previous year question papers to test what you remember. 

Rashtrakuta Dynasty Rulers List and Key Achievements

Knowing each ruler and his main work is a must for CUET PG history PYQ practice. The table below gives a quick view before we look at some rulers in more detail.

Dantidurga, founder of the Rashtrakuta dynasty: He defeated the Gurjaras, captured Malwa and overthrew the Chalukya king Kirtivarman II. This made the Rashtrakutas the top power in the Deccan. He performed the Hiranyagarbha ritual at Ujjayini, not at Manyakheta, to show his freedom from the Chalukyas. Exam questions often test this point.

Krishna I and the Kailasanatha temple: Krishna I built the Kailasanatha temple at Ellora. He also defeated the Gangas and the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. He defeated the Pallavas and took Kanchipuram as well. Keep this Pallava victory linked to Krishna I, not Dantidurga.

The Tripartite Struggle: This was the fight for Kannauj between the Rashtrakutas, the Pratiharas and the Palas. Dhruva defeated Vatsaraja of the Pratiharas and Dharmapala of the Palas. Govinda III later defeated Dharmapala, the puppet king Chakrayudha of Kannauj and Nagabhatta. An inscription says he took the king of Lanka prisoner and set up two statues of him at Manyakheta. Later, Indra III beat Mahipala and sacked Kannauj.

Amoghavarsha I and the Kavirajamarga: Amoghavarsha I ruled for 64 years. He liked religion and literature more than war. He wrote the Kavirajamarga, the first Kannada work on poetics, and the Sanskrit Prashnottara Malika. He was a Jain, and Jinasena was his teacher. He lost control of Malwa and Gangavadi, and rebellions troubled his reign.

Krishna III: He was the last of the brilliant rulers. He fought the Paramaras of Malwa and the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. He defeated Parantaka I in 949 CE, took the northern Chola lands including Tondaimandalam and Kanchi, and reached Rameshwaram. There he set up a pillar of victory and built the Krishneswara temple.

Rashtrakuta Dynasty Polity and Administration: The King and His Ministers

The king stood at the top of the state, and ministers did the daily work. This is the base of Rashtrakuta polity, so learn it well.

The king was the "fountain of all power". His titles included Parameshvara, Paramabhattaraka and Maharajadhiraja. Kingship was hereditary and usually passed to the eldest son, called the Yuvaraja. Sometimes a younger son was chosen. The court was full of pomp and ceremony.

Ministers were chosen for their proven skill. The chief minister was the Mahasandhivigrahi. He carried the five symbols of office, called the Panchamahashabdas: a black conch, a fan, a white umbrella, a trumpet and a drum. Other officers included the Dandanayaka and the Mahakapatadhikrita, who was the foreign minister. Some officers toured the empire to inspect it and to watch the vassals.

Rashtrakuta Administration: Rashtra, Vishaya, Bhukti and Village

The empire was split into levels, each with its own head. The table below shows the full chain from province to village.

A rashtra was a province. Its head, the Rashtrapati, held both civil and military power. He kept law and order, collected taxes and maintained accounts. One source says Amoghavarsha's empire had 16 rashtras. Each rashtra had vishayas, or districts, under a Vishayapati.

The sources use different terms for the level below the vishaya. One source names it the bhukti, which had 50 to 70 villages under bhogapatis appointed by the centre. The other source calls it the nadu, headed by a Nadagonda. Both refer to a sub-district tier, so write both terms in your answer. At the bottom was the village, led by a Grampati or Prabhu Ganda, the village headman. Village assemblies, with households represented, also helped run local matters.

Women also had a place in governance. Amoghavarsha I's daughter Revakani was made the administrator of a district (vishaya).

Vassals, Army, Revenue and Coinage

The Rashtrakuta state was decentralised in practice. The emperor ruled part of the empire directly and governed the rest through vassals. Strong vassals had full control over their internal affairs and could even make land grants without the emperor's consent. They came to court when called and joined military campaigns. This system helped the empire grow fast. But it made the empire weak when the centre lost its power.

The dynasty kept a large standing army, mostly at the capital. It was used for both attack and defence. Provincial governors and feudatories added their own forces when needed.

Revenue came mainly from vassal tribute, mines, forests and wasteland. The land tax, called Udranga or Bhagakara, was about one-quarter of the gross produce. Lands given to Brahmins and temples still paid tax, but at a low rate. No taxes were collected in a drought or famine.

The Rashtrakutas issued five types of coins: Drama, Suvarna, Godhyanka, Kalanju and Kasu. Some gold coins were also issued.

Society and Religion Under the Rashtrakutas

Society followed the four-varna order. Brahmans held the top place, but Kshatriyas enjoyed almost equal privileges. The status of Vaishyas had fallen. The Bhakti movements of the Nayanars and Alvars improved the position of Sudras. Untouchables were still kept out of mainstream life.

The joint family was common. Widows and daughters could inherit property. Sati was not popular in the Deccan, and child marriage had become common.

Vaishnavism and Shaivism both grew. Seals show Garuda-vahana Vishnu and Shiva in a yogic pose. Kings like Amoghavarsha I, Krishna II and Indra III gave patronage to Jainism. Buddhism was declining, and Kanheri was its main surviving centre. Buddhist settlements also existed at Sholapur and Dharwar. People of different faiths lived in general harmony, and the practice of Tuladana (offering one's weight in gold) was followed. An inscription also describes the Salatogi college in Bijapur district, which ran on endowments and village gifts.

Rashtrakuta Economy and Trade with Arabs

The economy was strong. The state gave attention to farming, and mining, industry and textiles grew. Cloth output was more than the local need, so a large amount was exported.

The Rashtrakutas held much of the western coast, and most trade with West Asia passed through their ports. They kept friendly ties with the Arabs of Sind. Arab merchants acted as go-betweens in India's sea trade. Guilds controlled trade and also did banking.

Rashtrakuta Art and Architecture: Ellora and Elephanta

The Rashtrakuta age is seen as the peak of Indian rock-cut architecture. Its best example is the Kailasanatha temple at Ellora, built under Krishna I. It is a monolithic temple carved from solid rock. Its design looks like the Lokeshwara (Virupaksha) temple at Pattadakal. Its panels show Ravana shaking Mount Kailash, dancing Shiva, and Vishnu with Lakshmi. A tradition says the shikhara was carved first to fulfil a vow.

Ellora has 34 caves, and Cave 15 (Dasavatara) is for Vishnu's ten avatars. The Elephanta Caves at Gharapuri near Mumbai date to the 9th–10th centuries, according to the source. They are famous for the Nataraja, Sadashiva, Ardhanarishvara and the 25-foot Maheshmurti, a three-faced Shiva. Scholars debate who built Elephanta, so write "linked to the Rashtrakuta period" instead of stating it as a sure fact.

Pampa, Ponna and Ranna: Kannada Literature

Kannada and Sanskrit literature grew in this age, with special support for Jain scholars. Kannada literature's Ratnatraya, or three gems, are Pampa, Ponna and Ranna.

• Pampa: Known as the Adikavi and a Jain, he wrote the Adipurana in champu style and the Vikramarjuna Vijaya, which tells the Mahabharata from Arjuna's view.

• Ponna: A Jain poet who wrote the Shantipurana.

• Pampa and Ponna are linked to the court of Krishna III.

Rashtrakuta Decline and the Western Chalukyas

By the 10th century, the Rashtrakutas' central position had become a weakness. The Cholas were rising in the south. The Chalukyas were regaining strength, and the Shilaharas took the western coastal ports. The Paramara king Siyaka II attacked Manyakheta. After Krishna III died, his opponents joined forces against his successor, and Malkhed was sacked and burnt in 972 CE.

Then Tailapa II, a feudatory from Tardavadi, declared independence and founded the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani. They captured Manyakheta and ended Rashtrakuta rule in 975 CE. Many feudatories also broke away, so the empire could not recover.

How to Revise for CUET PG: Notes and PYQ Tips

Start with administration, since it is the core of this topic. Then learn the rulers list, the Tripartite Struggle, trade, art and decline. Use these points while solving CUET PG history PYQs:

• Hiranyagarbha was performed at Ujjayini, not Manyakheta.

• The Pallava victory and the Kailasanatha temple belong to Krishna I.

• Bhukti and nadu are two terms for the level below the vishaya.

• The land tax was about one-quarter of the produce.

• Indra III sacked Kannauj in 915 CE, and Malkhed was burnt in 972 CE.

• The dynasty ended in 975 CE with the rise of the Western Chalukyas.

Make short revision notes on the rulers table and the administration table. Then attempt past year questions to check what you remember. Solve the CUET PG History previous year question papers to test what you remember. 

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Along with these notes, PW offers dedicated resources to help you revise the full CUET PG History syllabus faster and practice more questions before exam day.

The Rashtrakutas played a significant role in the political, economic and cultural history of early medieval India. For CUET PG preparation, revise their rulers, administration, economy, art, literature and decline along with important dates and PYQs.