Class 12 History Chapter 4 - Thinkers, Beliefs & Buildings

The period between 600 BCE and 600 CE marks a crucial era in Indian history, characterized by profound cultural and religious transformations. Following the political, economic, and social developments of earlier periods, this chapter focuses on the religious and philosophical landscape, exploring established traditions, new challenges, and their lasting impact.

The Historical Context: A Period of Global Enlightenment

The mid-first millennium BCE (around the 6th Century BCE) was a major global turning point with influential thinkers emerging worldwide. Zarathustra in Iran, Kongzi (Confucius) in China, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle in Greece, and Mahavira and Gautam Buddha in India all explored profound questions of existence.

In India, this period coincided with the Second Urbanisation in the Ganga Valley, prompting these thinkers to address rapid social and economic changes and fundamental questions about life, death, and humanity's cosmic relationship.

The Sacrificial Tradition: From Collective to Individual Rituals

Understanding this era requires reviewing the pre-existing Vedic sacrificial tradition. In the Early Vedic Period (c. 1500–1000 BCE), the Rigveda contained hymns praising deities like Agni, Indra, and Soma. These yajnas were simple, collective rituals performed for community well-being.

By the Later Vedic Period (c. 1000–500 BCE), with the rise of janapadas and settled agriculture, sacrifices became elaborate and individualistic. Kings performed complex rituals like Rajasuya and Ashvamedha to assert their authority, making Brahmin priests indispensable and increasing their social dominance.

Early vs. Later Vedic Sacrifices

Structure of Vedic Knowledge

The foundational texts of the Brahmanical tradition are the four Vedas. Each Veda is organized into four distinct parts.

The Four Vedas:

1. Rigveda: Oldest, contains hymns to deities.

2. Samaveda: "Book of Chants," Rigveda hymns set to musical melodies.

3. Yajurveda: "Book of Rituals," procedures for sacrifices.

4. Atharvaveda: Later Veda, spells, charms, and folk traditions.

The Four Parts of Each Veda:

• Samhita: Core collection of hymns and mantras.

• Brahmana: Prose commentaries explaining hymns and rituals.

• Aranyaka: "Forest Books," mystical interpretations and philosophical discussions.

• Upanishad: Concluding portions, profound philosophical speculation.

The Rise of New Questions and the Upanishads

The increasing complexity and cost of Later Vedic rituals led to new philosophical inquiries, captured in the Upanishads (composed from around the 6th Century BCE). These texts, recording dialogues, moved beyond rituals to existential questions: the meaning of life and death, the possibility of rebirth (punarjanma), the relationship between karma and fate, the nature of ultimate reality (atma), and liberation (moksha). This indicated a growing dissatisfaction with ritual-centric Brahmanical traditions.

The Emergence of Heterodox Sects

The 6th century BCE fostered the emergence of numerous thinkers who challenged Vedic authority and Brahmanical dominance, giving rise to Heterodox Sects. These new movements are also known as the Shramana tradition, comprising wandering ascetics and philosophers. This chapter focuses on Jainism, Buddhism, Ajivikas, and Lokayatas.

Orthodox vs. Heterodox Traditions

Also Check: CBSE Class 12 History Important Topics 2026

Debates and Discussions

This era fostered intense intellectual debates, with Buddhist texts noting as many as 64 different schools of thought. Teachers travelled, debating in Kutagarashalas (huts with pointed roofs) to convince people and rivals, gaining adherents through successful arguments. This highlights the dynamic philosophical landscape of the time.

The Challenge to Vedic Authority

Among the many new thinkers, Mahavira and Buddha were the most influential, directly challenging the authority of the Vedas and the necessity of Brahminical rituals.

New Thinkers vs. Brahminical Position

Fatalists and Materialists

The Sutta Pitaka records discussions with other non-Vedic schools of thought: Ajivikas and Lokayatas.

Ajivikas (Fatalists), led by Makkhali Gosala, believed in Niyativada (predestination). They held that everything is fixed and predetermined, and human actions cannot alter one's fate, pleasure, or pain (Memory Tip: Just as a ball of thread unrolls only to its fixed length, the Ajivikas believed life's course is fixed and unchangeable). Penance and virtue were considered futile.

Lokayatas (Materialists), led by Ajita Kesakambalin, were materialists. They believed humans are composed of elements that dissolve upon death, with no soul or afterlife. They asserted that human actions have no results after death, advocating for enjoying the present life.

Ajivikas vs. Lokayatas

The Message of Mahavira: Jainism

Jainism's ideas were present in North India even before the 6th century BCE, with a lineage of 24 Tirthankaras. Vardhamana (Mahavira), the 24th and last Tirthankara, formalized these teachings. Born near Vaishali, his philosophy centers on:

1. The World is Animated: All things possess life, including stones and water.

2. Ahimsa (Non-injury): Paramount principle of non-injury to all living beings.

3. Karma and Rebirth: The cycle of birth and rebirth is shaped by karma.

4. Path to Liberation: Achieve moksha (liberation) through asceticism and penance. This includes Sallekhana, fasting until death.

The Five Vows of Jain Monks:

1. Ahimsa: Abstain from killing.

2. Satya: Not to lie.

3. Achaurya: Not to steal.

4. Aparigraha: Not to possess property.

5. Brahmacharya: Observe celibacy (added by Mahavira).

The Spread and Division of Jainism

Mahavira's teachings were compiled in Prakrit, making them accessible. Jainism spread to various parts of India, notably Gujarat and Maharashtra, but its rigorous path limited its wider expansion. A significant schism occurred around the 4th century BCE due to a famine in Magadha.

The Great Schism in Jainism

The Buddha and His Message

Siddhartha Gautama, born 563 BCE in Lumbini (modern-day Nepal) into the Shakya clan, became the Buddha (Enlightened One). His teachings spread across Asia. Our knowledge comes from hagiographies and oral teachings compiled into Pali texts. The primary collection of Buddhist scriptures is the Tipitaka ('Three Baskets'):

1. Sutta Pitaka: Contains the Buddha's teachings and dialogues.

2. Vinaya Pitaka: Rules for the monastic community (Sangha).

3. Abhidhamma Pitaka: Philosophical analyses.

The Buddhist Councils and Sacred Texts

Buddhist teachings were initially orally transmitted. The First Buddhist Council was held in Rajagriha shortly after Buddha's death to compile teachings. The Second Council in Vaishali formalized their writing down. Subsequent councils led to further codification and missionary efforts, eventually resulting in the division into Mahayana and Hinayana schools.

As Buddhism spread, regional chronicles like the Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa emerged in Sri Lanka. While early texts were in Pali, later ones used Sanskrit. Chinese pilgrims like Faxian and Xuanzang travelled to India, collecting and translating texts. Today, Buddhist manuscripts are preserved globally in various languages.

The Four Major Buddhist Councils

The four major buddhist councils were held at various locations as detailed below:

The Life of the Buddha

Prince Siddhartha, shielded from suffering, encountered Four Sights (an old man, a sick man, a corpse, and a peaceful mendicant) that revealed suffering's reality and inspired his search for peace. His Great Renunciation (Mahabhinishkramana) at 29, symbolized by a horse in Buddhist art, led him to abandon worldly life. After realizing extreme asceticism was futile, he found the Middle Path, meditating until he achieved enlightenment (Buddha) under a Peepal tree. He then taught the Dhamma (the eternal law).

The Buddha's Teachings and Philosophy

The Buddha's teachings, primarily in the Sutta Pitaka, used logic and reason. He illustrated truths, such as the inevitability of death (e.g., the story of the grieving mother).

Core Tenets of Buddhist Philosophy:

• The World is Transient and Soulless: It is in constant flux (Anicca) and is soul-less (Anatta), meaning nothing is permanent or eternal.

• Suffering is Inherent: Sorrow and suffering (Dukkha) are intrinsic to human existence.

• The Middle Path (Madhyam Marg): The way to overcome suffering is to avoid both severe asceticism and self-indulgence.

• On God and the Soul: Buddha's philosophy did not include belief in a creator God or a permanent soul (Atman), considering such concepts irrelevant to liberation.

The Four Noble Truths:

1. Dukkha: The world is full of suffering.

2. Samudaya: The cause of suffering is craving and desire (Trishna).

3. Nirodha: Suffering can be ended by eliminating craving and desire.

4. Magga: This elimination is achieved by following the Eightfold Path.

Nibbana (Nirvana) and Self-Effort:

Liberation in Buddhism is Nibbana (extinguishing the ego and fires of desire). It depends entirely on individual agency and self-effort. The Buddha's final words, "Appo Deepo Bhava"—"Be a lamp unto yourself"—underscore self-reliance on the path to enlightenment.

The Followers and the Sangha

The Buddha's balanced ideology and rejection of birth-based social hierarchies attracted diverse followers. He established the Sangha, a monastic community of monks (Bhikkhus) and nuns (Bhikkhunis), living simply on alms. Initially for men, women (first Mahapajapati Gotami, Buddha's foster mother) were later admitted. Absolute equality prevailed within the Sangha, governed by rules in the Vinaya Pitaka. Senior monks (Theras) and nuns (Theris) achieved respected status, their verses compiled in texts like Theragatha and Therigatha.

Stupas, Chaityas, and Viharas

Buddhist architecture includes Viharas (monasteries and resting places), Chaityas (prayer halls, often with a stupa as a focal point), and Stupas. A stupa is a dome-shaped mound housing sacred relics (thupa) of the Buddha or other enlightened beings. Stupas are central to Buddhist worship, considered sacred due to their relics. The Buddha himself advised building stupas, and Emperor Ashoka widely distributed relics for their construction.

Fates of Amaravati and Sanchi: A Comparative Study

The histories of the Amaravati and Sanchi stupas provide a stark contrast in preservation. The Amaravati stupa was systematically dismantled over time by colonial officials and local kings from 1796, its sculptures ("Elliot Marbles") scattered globally, leading to its ruin.

In contrast, the Sanchi stupa survived due to the active preservation efforts of the Begums of Bhopal, Shahjahan Begum and Sultan Jahan Begum. They wisely refused European demands to take relics or gateways, offering plaster-cast copies instead, and funded the stupa's maintenance and study. Archaeologist H. H. Cole championed in-situ preservation (on-the-spot) of heritage sites, a principle effectively demonstrated by Sanchi's survival.

Amaravati vs. Sanchi Stupa Preservation

Here is a clear explanation of Amravati vs Sanchi Stupa Preservation:

Symbols of Worship in Early Buddhism

Early Buddhist art did not depict the Buddha in human form, as he was against idol worship. Instead, his followers used symbols to represent key moments of his life.

Key Life Events and Their Symbols:

• The Great Renunciation (Mahabhinishkramana): Represented by a horse.

• Enlightenment (Sambodhi): Represented by an empty seat beneath a tree (the Bodhi tree).

• The First Sermon (Dharmachakra Pravartana): Represented by a wheel (chakra).

• Death (Mahaparinibbana): Represented by a stupa.

Stories in Stone: Jataka Tales and Other Motifs

Many sculptures at sites like Sanchi depict stories, particularly from the Jataka tales—stories about the previous lives of the Buddha. Beyond these Buddhist narratives, the stupas incorporated various other motifs:

• The Shalabhanjika: A figure of a woman swinging from a tree, an auspicious symbol from Sanskrit literature whose touch could make trees flower.

• Animal Motifs: Elephants (strength, wisdom), horses (speed), monkeys, and cattle, often with symbolic meaning or from Jataka stories.

• Gaja Lakshmi: A female figure on a lotus, flanked by two elephants sprinkling water (abhisheka). Interpreted as Maya Devi (Buddha's mother) or Gaja Lakshmi (goddess of good fortune).

• Serpent (Naga) Motifs: Frequently found, their exact Buddhist significance is debated, possibly incorporated from local traditions.

Mahayana and Hinayana Buddhism

Around the 1st century CE, significant changes within Buddhism led to a major split. The new school was Mahayana ("The Great Vehicle"), while the older, more traditional school became known as Hinayana ("The Lesser Vehicle"), whose followers preferred the term Theravadins (followers of the "way of the elders").

Hinayana (Theravada) vs. Mahayana

Here is a clear comparison between Hinayana and Mahayana based on various aspects:

A central Mahayana concept is the Bodhisattva: compassionate beings who delay their own nirvana to help others achieve salvation, a significant departure from original teachings.

Brahmanical Response: Puranic Hinduism and the Saviour Concept

The rise of Buddhism and its inclusive message challenged the Brahmanical tradition, prompting a major transformation. Key strategic shifts included:

1. Adoption of the Savior Concept: Popularized avatars (divine incarnations) in Vaishnavism (worship of Vishnu) and Shaivism (worship of Shiva).

2. Integration of Local Deities: Local gods like Lord Jagannath and Vithoba were identified as forms of Vishnu, absorbing diverse worship into the Brahmanical fold.

3. Shift to Puranic Deities: Focus shifted from Vedic gods (Indra, Agni) to Vishnu, Shiva, and the Goddess.

4. Creation of Puranas: New texts in simple Sanskrit contained stories of gods and avatars, made accessible to women and Shudras, who were traditionally excluded from Vedic study.

5. Emphasis on Devotion (Bhakti): Complex Vedic sacrifices were de-emphasized in favor of personal devotion to a chosen deity.

Rise of Temple Architecture

Concurrent with stupa building, the first Hindu temples emerged. Early temples were simple, small square rooms called the garbhagriha ("womb-house") to house the main deity. Over time, architecture became elaborate, with tall superstructures (shikhara), sculptures, assembly halls, and gateways.

A parallel tradition was rock-cut architecture, progressing from simple caves (e.g., Ashoka's Barabar Caves for Ajivikas) to magnificent monolithic temples like the Kailashnath temple at Ellora, carved from a single rock.

Interpreting the Past: Challenges and Methods

Historians face challenges interpreting ancient art. 19th-century European scholars struggled with Indian iconography until they studied Gandhara art (northwest India), which showed Hellenistic (Greek) influences. This "Gandhara key" helped them decipher Buddhist iconography.

The Gandhara School was Greek-influenced, realistic, and made of grey stone, while the Mathura School was indigenous, simpler, and used red sandstone. Sometimes, texts and images offer conflicting interpretations, as with the Mahabalipuram Relief's dual interpretation (either "Descent of Ganga" or "Arjuna's Penance"), highlighting that much ancient meaning may be lost to modern understanding.

Explore the CBSE Class 12 Arts 2026 to access essential resources for CBSE Arts exam preparation, including detailed insights and strategies. Dive into the CBSE Arts 2026 for structured courses and focused study plans designed to help aspirants in their exams.