India-Pakistan Relations: Historical Background, Challenges in Bilateral Relationship, Way Forward & UPSC PYQs

India and Pakistan have the most complex relations in the world. Pakistan is a security threat for India due to cross border terrorism, illegal migration, fake currency and instability in Kashmir.

Pakistan is a zipper state of Asia because it is situated on the confluence of west, central and south Asia. For the USA, it has been a credible partner in the cold war and controlling Afghanistan. The USA also controls China and India through Pakistan. For China, it helps in balancing India and it is a rentier state for China due to its connectivity from Xinjiang to Arabian Sea. According to experts, China and Pakistan are considered as iron brothers.

India-Pakistan Relations: This topic is important for the UPSC Civil Services Examination under General Studies Paper II (International Relations) and General Studies Paper III (Internal Security and Border Management). It is frequently linked with issues such as cross-border terrorism, the Kashmir dispute, the Indus Waters Treaty, border management, nuclear security, regional connectivity, India’s Neighbourhood First Policy, China-Pakistan strategic cooperation, and peace and stability in South Asia. 

India-Pakistan Relations: Historical Context

Overview of Key Events in India-Pakistan Relations:

• 1947: Partition of India.

• 1948: Kashmir Conflict begins.

• 1960: Indus Water Treaty signed.

• 1963: Shaksgam Valley was ceded to China by Pakistan.

• 1965: India-Pakistan War.

• 1971: Bangladesh Liberation War.

• 1984: Operation Meghdoot to secure Siachen.

• 1991: LPG Reforms and Kashmir issues intensify.

• 1999: Kargil War.

• 2001: 9/11 impacts global and regional security.

• 2008: Mumbai Attacks.

• 2016: Uri Attacks and Surgical Strike by India.

• 2019: Pulwama Attack followed by Balakot Airstrike.

• 2025: Pahalgam Attack+ Operation Sindoor

Pakistan’s Identity Crisis

Pakistan's identity crisis refers to the persistent challenge of defining a cohesive national identity in a state characterized by ethnic, linguistic, sectarian, and regional diversity. Since its creation in 1947, Pakistan has grappled with balancing Islamic identity, territorial nationalism, and ethnic aspirations.

• Identity Crisis: Pakistan’s identity crisis originates from its formation in 1947, which was based on the Two-Nation Theory. This theory justified the creation of Pakistan as a homeland for Muslims in the Indian subcontinent.

• Failure of Two Nation Theory: However, the theory failed to hold over time, as religion alone proved insufficient to define national identity. 

• The secession of Bangladesh in 1971 demonstrated this clearly. Moreover, the continued existence of India as a secular state with a diverse religious population further undermines the foundation of the Two-Nation Theory.

• Kashmir Issue: The Kashmir issue is central to Pakistan’s identity, as the region's Muslim-majority population has been key to its claim, rooted in the Two-Nation Theory. Since Pakistan's population includes various ethnic communities, Kashmir serves as a symbol of unity based on religious affiliation.

Indus Water Treaty, 1960

• The Indus Waters Treaty was signed on September 19, 1960, between India and Pakistan, with the World Bank acting as broker.

• It is considered one of the most successful and generous water-sharing agreements globally, as India (the upper riparian state) allowed Pakistan to utilize 80% of the waters from the Indus River system.

• Key Provisions: 

• River Division: Western Rivers (Indus, Jhelum, Chenab) are allocated to Pakistan, while Eastern Rivers (Ravi, Beas, Sutlej) are allocated to India.

• India retains limited rights over the western rivers for domestic use, irrigation, and run-of-the-river hydroelectric projects.

• Permanent Indus Commission: Formed with one commissioner from each country to handle routine treaty affairs and resolve minor disputes.

• Recent Issues / Conflicts: 

• Kishanganga Project (330 MW): India’s hydroelectric project that diverts water from the Kishanganga River to the Jhelum basin.

• Pakistan’s Objection: Took the matter to the Court of Arbitration in 2011.

• India’s Response: Objected to this move, citing violations of treaty terms by Pakistan.

• Dispute Resolution Mechanism: 

• Commission-level resolution via the Permanent Indus Commission.

• A neutral expert appointed by the World Bank if unresolved.

• Court of Arbitration as the final step.

• Current Development: The treaty has recently faced a significant shift following the Pahalgam terrorist attack on April 22, 2025, which killed 26 civilians. India abeyance the treaty on April 23, 2025, citing Pakistan’s alleged support for terrorism, marking the first such action in 64 years.

Issues/Challenges in India-Pakistan Relations

The recent issues in India-Pakistan Relations are:

Sir Creek Dispute

• Geographical Context: Sir Creek is a 96-km-long marshy strip lying between Gujarat (India) and Sindh (Pakistan).

• It remains a disputed territory, with both countries claiming ownership.

• India’s Response: Proposes the mid-channel boundary following the Thalweg Principle (international norm).

• Pakistan’s  Response: Claims the entire Sir Creek area, arguing it's non-navigable marshland.

• Importance: Rich in marine life and potential oil and gas reserves.

• Crucial in determining Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) and maritime boundaries in the Arabian Sea.

Siachen Glacier Dispute

• Operation Meghdoot (1984): Launched by the Indian Army to pre-empt Pakistani moves and secure key strategic heights on the Siachen Glacier.

• India successfully occupied positions along the Saltoro Ridge, gaining a critical advantage in the region.

• Strategic Importance: The glacier lies at the tri-junction of India, Pakistan, and China, making it strategically vital for India to monitor movements across the region.

• Holding Siachen allows India to dominate the Saltoro Ridge and prevent any military link between Pakistan and China in this sensitive zone.

• Positions of Both Countries

• Pakistan’s Stance: Advocates for demilitarization of the glacier.

• India’s Stance: Resists demilitarization without strong bilateral and international guarantees, fearing Pakistan may reoccupy the area—especially given the history of mistrust, including Kargil (1999).

• Likelihood of Resolution: Despite often being termed "low-hanging fruit" in India-Pakistan disputes (due to the limited civilian population and lack of direct economic stakes), demilitarization remains unlikely in the near term due to strategic concerns and lack of trust.

• Key Places:

• Saltoro Ridge: The Saltoro Ridge, part of the Karakoram Range, lies southwest of the Siachen Glacier and is a disputed region between India and Pakistan.

• NJ 9842: NJ 9842 is a reference point on the Line of Control (LoC) in the Kashmir region, marking the northernmost point of the boundary between India and Pakistan. It is significant in the context of the Siachen Glacier dispute.

• AGPL (Actual Ground Position Line): Separates Indian and Pakistani positions on Siachen. India controls the higher ground along the Saltoro Ridge, while Pakistan remains at lower elevations.

Gilgit-Baltistan Issue

• Background: Gilgit-Baltistan (GB) is part of the larger Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK) and is claimed by India as an integral part of its territory.

• While Pakistan administers the region, it remains under disputed status as per the UN resolutions and bilateral agreements with India.

• Pakistan’s approach towards the integration and demographic shift in Gilgit-Baltistan (GB) raises concerns, particularly as it relates to the region's disputed status. GB, which is part of Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK), remains a territorial issue for India. 

• The construction of the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) passing through GB intensifies these concerns, as India views the infrastructure project as a violation of its sovereignty over the region. 

• The shifting demographics and Pakistan's moves to consolidate control in GB (deeming it as the fifth province of Pakistan) only add to the territorial and sovereignty disputes between India and Pakistan.

Junagarh

• In 2020, then-Pakistani Prime Minister Imran Khan unveiled a new political map that included all of Jammu & Kashmir, Ladakh, Sir Creek, and Junagadh (coastal Gujarat). 

• While Pakistan claims Junagadh, its claim remains largely symbolic, with little practical action taken to assert control over the region. 

• The claim over Junagadh, a princely state that acceded to India in 1948 via a Plebiscite, is more of a political statement than a territorial dispute.

Terrorism 

• Cross-border terrorism remains India’s greatest security threat, with terrorist launch pads in Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK).

• Terrorist Groups: Groups like Lashkar-e-Taiba, Jamaat-ul-Dawa, Jaish-e-Mohammad, Hizb-ul-Mujahideen, and Jaish-ul-Adl continue to orchestrate attacks in India, often with protection from Pakistan.

• Non-state actors, such as Masood Azhar, play a significant role in coordinating these terror activities.

Other Disputes

The other disputes in India-Pakistan Relations are as follows

• Drug Trafficking: The Golden Crescent region, which includes parts of Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Iran, remains a major source of illegal drug trafficking. This contributes to a growing drug problem in India and exacerbates security concerns.

• Infiltration and Radicalization: The infiltration of militants into India and continued support for radicalization are significant threats. These actions undermine India’s security and contribute to increasing violence and instability, particularly in border areas.

• Organized Crime: The connection between terrorism and organized crime further complicates India’s security challenges, with cross-border criminal networks operating in and out of Pakistan.

• CPEC and Gwadar Port: The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) and the strategic Gwadar Port are key concerns for India. CPEC is part of China’s "String of Pearls" strategy, increasing China's influence in the region and providing it with greater strategic depth.

• Debt Trap and Economic Influence: CPEC has led to Pakistan becoming heavily indebted to China, creating a "debt trap" that compromises Pakistan's economic sovereignty and could deepen China’s influence in the region.

• Institutional Multilateral Issues: The growing China-Pakistan nexus and the potential for a broader China-Russia-India (CRI) Axis raise concerns about shifting geopolitical dynamics. 

• Pakistan continues to provide institutional support to anti-India terrorist groups and entities, further destabilizing the region. 

• Additionally, the ongoing Pakistan-Khalistan connection adds to India's internal security issues.

• Lack of Trade and trust between India and Pakistan has further created concerns for South Asia. This has disrupted SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation) as well as regional growth and connectivity.

Way Ahead

Measures to strengthen bilateral relations between the two countries are as follows:

• Confidence-Building Measures (CBMs): To improve the trust deficit, confidence-building measures like the Kartarpur Sahib Corridor can be expanded. Such initiatives can help create goodwill and foster communication, offering a foundation for future cooperation.

• Trade and Connectivity: Developing trade and enhancing connectivity between India and Pakistan can promote interdependence, which may lead to economic and political stabilization. 

• India had granted Pakistan the Most-Favored-Nation (MFN) status, which, despite not being reciprocated, was a gesture toward improving relations. If revived, similar measures could have a long-standing impact on bilateral ties, assuming terrorism-related issues are addressed.

• Cultural Diplomacy: Bilateral exchanges in the form of music festivals, art exhibitions, and joint literary projects can significantly contribute to bridging gaps.

• Track II Diplomacy: Prioritizing Track II diplomacy, which focuses on people-to-people contact and informal dialogues, can help ease tensions. Leveraging soft power, such as educational exchanges, media collaborations, and cultural interactions, can encourage collaboration and foster goodwill.

• Cricket Diplomacy: Cricket, with its widespread popularity in both countries, has the unique ability to unite people across borders.

• Multilateral: Additionally, India should engage with like-minded countries to exert pressure on Pakistan to dismantle the shelters of terrorists within its borders.

UPSC Previous Year Questions 

Prelims:

Q. Siachen Glacier is situated to the: (2020)

1. East of Aksai Chin

2. East of Leh

3. North of Gilgit

4. North of Nubra Valley

Answer: D

The Siachen Glacier is situated to the North of the Nubra Valley. Siachen Glacier is located in the eastern Karakoram range in the Himalayas at about 421226°N 77.109540°E, just northeast of the point NJ9842 where the Line of Control between India and Pakistan ends. The 75 km long Siachen Glacier in the north of Nubra valley has the distinction of being the largest glacier outside the polar and the subpolar regions. It is also the world’s highest battlefield. 

UPSC Mains PYQ:

Q. Terrorist activities and mutual distrust have clouded India – Pakistan relation. To what extent the use of soft power like sports and culture exchange could help generate goodwill between the two countries. Discuss with suitable examples. [200 Words,12.5 Marks] 2015

Q. “Increase cross- border terrorist attacks in India and growing interference in the internal affairs of member – states of SAARC ( South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation)” Explain with suitable examples.[200 Words, 12.5 Marks] 2016