Salient Features of Indian Constitution List, Key and Criticisms

Feature

Description

Highlights

1. Lengthiest Written Constitution

World's longest written constitution, comprehensive and detailed.

• 448 Articles, 25 Parts, 12 Schedules (as of 2025)

• Influenced by India's size, diversity, and colonial legacy

• Covers both governance & administration

2. Drawn from Various Sources

Borrowed from global constitutions and the Government of India Act, 1935.

• Structure: Govt. of India Act, 1935

• Rights: U.S. (Fundamental Rights), Ireland (DPSP)

• Cabinet system: U.K.

• Others: Canada, Australia, etc.

3. Blend of Rigidity & Flexibility

Combines features of rigid and flexible constitutions.

• Article 368: Special and simple amendment procedures

• Some provisions need state ratification

• Others can be changed by ordinary law

4. Federal System with Unitary Bias

A unique federal structure with a strong Centre.

• “Union of States” (Art. 1)

• Strong Centre, single Constitution, emergency powers

• Described as “quasi-federal” or “federal with centralising tendency”

5. Parliamentary Form of Government

Inspired by the British Westminster model.

• Nominal & real executive, collective responsibility

• Prime Ministers/Chief Ministers as leaders

• Parliament at both Centre & State levels

6. Synthesis of Parliamentary Sovereignty & Judicial Supremacy

Balances British and American principles.

• Judicial review (SC can strike down laws)

• Parliament can amend Constitution (within limits)

• ‘Procedure established by law’ (Art. 21) vs ‘due process’

7. Integrated & Independent Judiciary

Unified court system enforcing both Central and State laws.

• Supreme Court (SC) at the top, followed by High Courts and lower courts

• Independence ensured via tenure, service conditions, etc.

8. Fundamental Rights

Guarantees six broad categories of rights to citizens (Part III).

• Justiciable, enforceable via SC (Art. 32)

• Can be restricted or suspended during emergency (except Arts. 20 & 21)

9. Directive Principles of State Policy

Non-justiciable guidelines for governance (Part IV).

• Aim to establish a welfare state

• Classified as socialistic, Gandhian, liberal-intellectual

• Politically enforceable

10. Fundamental Duties

Citizens' moral obligations (Part IV-A, Art. 51-A).

• Added by 42nd Amendment (1976), a total of 11 duties

• Not legally enforceable, but it promotes civic responsibility

11. Secular State

Equal respect for all religions; no state religion.

• ‘Secular’ in Preamble (42nd Amendment)

• Arts. 25–30 ensure religious freedom

• Indian secularism is positive secularism (equal protection to all faiths)

12. Universal Adult Franchise

Right to vote for all citizens aged 18 and above.

• Enshrines political equality

• Adopted despite poverty, illiteracy

• Age lowered from 21 to 18 (61st Amendment, 1988)

13. Single Citizenship

Only one citizenship for all Indians.

• No dual citizenship, unlike the U.S.

• Promotes national unity and equality across states

14. Independent Bodies

Constitutional institutions for checks and balance.

• EC, CAG, UPSC, SPSC

• Ensure neutrality and fairness in administration

• Independence via tenure, fixed service, budget safeguards

15. Emergency Provisions

Special powers to handle extraordinary situations.

• Three types: National (Art. 352), State (Art. 356), Financial (Art. 360)

• Converts federal system into unitary temporarily

16. Three-tier Government

Constitutional recognition to local governments.

• 73rd & 74th Amendments (1992)

• Panchayats (Part IX, Sch. 11); Municipalities (Part IX-A, Sch. 12)

• Decentralised governance

17. Co-operative Societies

Constitutional status to co-operatives (97th Amendment, 2011).

• Right to form co-ops under Art. 19

• New DPSP (Art. 43-B)

• Part IX-B added (Arts. 243ZH–243ZT)